Immediate cause. Napoleon escaped from Elba with 1,200 of his veterans, and landed at Frejus, near Cannes, (March 1st, 1815.) Duration. Four months, (March 1st, 1815-June 29th, 1815.) Object of the war. Napoleon wished to recover his throne. Result of the war. Napoleon loses not only his throne, but even his liberty. Parties. Napoleon against united Europe. Enormous forces raised by the allies, amounting to no less than 986,000 men, (England supplies subsidies, in all $55,000,000.) Against this huge force, Napoleon could only command about 220,000 men, consisting partly of the troops he found on entering France, partly of disbanded veterans, called again to his standard. Commanders. The Allies: Wellington, Blücher, Bülow, Ziethen. The French: Napoleon, Ney, Soult, Grouchy. From Cannes to Paris. Napoleon advanced by forced marches through the midst of populations among whom he hoped to find the most sympathy for himself and his cause. Grenoble and Lyons opened their gates in succession. The soldiers everywhere responded to the appeal of their old general; Ney's corps followed the example; Ney himself was induced to do the same. In fact, the battalions despatched against the emperor served only to augment his escort. Louis XVIII. found himself compelled to fly from Paris, (March 20th,) and on the evening of the same day Napoleon entered the capital. At Paris. Napoleon proclaimed that he returned with a new system of home and foreign policy; that, in harmony with the wishes of the people, he desired a free constitution; that he intended to resign his project of a great empire, since the movement in Europe in favor of peace and the independent existence of nations had arrested him in his course of victory. Fouché, Carnot, Cambacérès, and his own brother, Lucien, were the ministers on whom he chiefly relied. A new constitution prepared by them was solemnly proclaimed and sworn to in the presence of a vast assembly in the Champ de Mai, (June 1st, 1815.) The last campaign. Napoleon left Paris for Belgium, June 12th. The English and Prussian armies, under Wellington and Blücher, already stood upon the Belgian frontiers, and Napoleon determined to attack them before the Austrians and Prussians could come up. He resorted to his old strategy of attacking one army after the other, and endeavoring to separate Wellington and Blücher. On June 15th, the French crossed the Sambre, defeated Ziethen, took Charleroi, and compelled the Prussians to retire to Ligny. At LIGNY, (June 16th,) Blücher was routed with immense loss by Napoleon. The British, meanwhile, on the same day, (June 16th,) stood their ground at QUATRE BRAS. Wellington, however, hearing of Blücher's defeat, fell back with his whole army upon WATERLOO, and here Napoleon came up to give him battle, (June 18th, 1815.) The English, after bravely fighting throughout the day, were beginning to waver toward evening, when BUCHER appeared on the field, and in conjunction with WELLINGTON, completely routed the French army, which fled in disorder, pursued by the Prussians. Immediate results of the Battle of Waterloo. Blücher arrived on the 22d of June, at Paris, where Napoleon had a second time abdicated (in favor of his son.) Napoleon set out for Rochefort, (June 29th,) with a view of escaping to America. Finding the coasts too strictly blockaded by British cruisers to give him a chance of escape, he was obliged to surrender to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon. On board of this vessel he was carried to England, where, however, he was not permitted to land, but having been transferred to another shipof-war, was immediately, by the orders of the British government, conveyed to St. Helena. (See NAPOLEON.) Second occupation of Paris by the allies, (July, 1815.) Peace. Second treaty of Paris, (November, 1815,) by which France is allowed to retain Elzass and Lorraine, but gives up four fortresses on the border; and agrees to pay a contribution to the expenses of the war of $140,000,000, and to restore the works of art of which she had pillaged nearly every capital in Europe. Occupation of France by the troops of the allied sovereigns till 1818. Remark. In order to secure the permanence of that peace which had now, to all appearance, been perfectly established in Europe, the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, formed what was called a HOLY ALLIANCE, (September 26th, 1815;) that is, an alliance by which they pledged themselves to regulate their future conduct by the principles of Christianity, to rule as men responsible to Heaven, and to assist each other as brothers in any new European emergency that might arise. All the powers eventually joined this alliance except Great Britain. XIII. Anglo-American War. Causes. English aggressions on American commerce, and impressment of American sailors on the high seas as British deserters. Duration. Nearly three years, (June, 1812-February, 1815.) Theatre of war. Principally along the borders of the United States and Canada. Parties. The United States against Great Britain. Commanders.. American: Army - Dearborn, Hull, Van Rensselaer, HARRISON, Hampton, Clay, JACKSON. Navy - PERRY, MCDONOUGH, Decatur, Bainbridge, Porter, Hull, Jones. British Army Brock, Proctor, Prevost, Drummond, Ross, Packenham. Navy - Downie, Barclay, etc. Battles. On land the operations of the American army were frequently unsuccessful, but at sea the American navy gained imperishable glory, (Perry's victory on Lake Erie, and McDonough's victory on Lake Champlain.) Although America had only 8 frigates, 8 sloops, and 170 small gunboats to fight the colossal navy of England, nevertheless, out of 20 naval engagements, 15 proved to be American victories. Land battles: Gained by the Americans. In 1813 York, Fort Meigs, Fort George, Sackett's Harbor, Fort Stephenson, NEAR THE THAMES. In 1814: Chippeway, LUNDY'S LANE, Fort Erie, PLATTSBURG, North Point, Fort McHenry. În 1815: NEW ORLEANS, (fought after the signing of the peace.) Gained by the English in 1812, Queenstown; in 1813, Frenchtown; in 1814, BLADENSBURG, followed by the BURNING OF WASHINGTON by the English. Peace. At Ghent, (December, 1814.) The treaty of peace said nothing about the aggressions on American commerce and impressment of sailors on the high seas, which had caused the war; but it was tacitly understood that there would be no further difficulty on these points. XIV. The War of Spanish Independence in America. Causes. The ruinous nature of the mercantile system which was forced by Spain on its colonies. It was prescribed by Spain what produce the colonists should cultivate. All kinds of manufacturing industry were strictly forbidden. They were prohibited, under pain of death, from trading with any nation except Spain. The American and French revolutions remained not without effect on the Spanish colonies. A spirit of disaffection to the mother country, and a desire for independence began to spread from colony to colony. Duration. Nearly fifteen years, (1810-1825.) Theatre of war. It gradually spread through the whole of Spanish America, except the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Spanish America, at the beginning of the war, consisted of four vice-royalties, (Mexico, New Granada, Peru, and Buenos Ayres,) and five general-capitanates, (Guatimala, Venezuela, Chili, Cuba, and Porto Rico.) Parties. The royalists or adherents of the mother country assisted by Spain, against the patriots, who received assistance from the United States and Great Britain. Commanders. Patriots: SIMON BOLIVAR, (see this,) Miranda, Rosas, Carera, Paez, Santander, Sucre, Iturbide. Royalists: Morillo, La Torre. Decisive battles. Gained by the Americans: Bochica, (1819;) Carabobo, (1821;) Junin, (1823;) Ayacucho, (1824.) Results. The chief results were, that Bolivar achieved the independence of Venezuela and Granada, which were erected into the republic of Colombia, (December, 1819.) In the previous May, Buenos Ayres had been constituted into the Argentine republic. The independence of Chili and Peru was also secured by the aid of Bolivar, and the republic of Bolivia was established in Upper Peru, (August, 1825.) In Mexico, Iturbide, who had become leader of the insurgents after the death of Hidalgos, Morelos, and Mina, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, in 1822, but was dethroned in the following year, when the republic of Mexico formed a league with Colombia. The independence of Colombia, Mexico, and Buenos Ayres was recognized by Great Britain, January 1st, 1825. In Paraguay, (a theocratic state, founded by the Jesuits, in the 17th century,) Dr. Francia ruled as despot from 1810 to 1837. XV. The Wars for the Independence of Greece. a. The Liberation of Greece. That the Turks should have so long maintained their empire in Europe over people so much more numerous than themselves, must perhaps be ascribed to the circumstance that these peoples are composed of various races unfitted to combine in any general political object, and that the Turk, as a man, is far superior to those over whom he rules. Exclusive of Armenians and Jews, the European subjects of the Sultan were composed of four distinct races, speaking different Duration. Seven years, (1822-1828.) The coasts and islands of Ancient Greece. Theatre of war. Object of the war. To liberate the Greeks from the Turkish dominion. Result of the war. The erection of the kingdom of Greece. Parties. The Greeks, assisted by England, France, and Russia, against Turkey and Egypt. The Greeks were also assisted by volunteers from all Europe. All the educated men in Europe were seized with what was called the Philhellenic fever. Commanders. Greeks: Ypsilanti, Mavrocordato, Noto Bozzaris. Allies: Byron, Stanhope, Codrington, Heyden, De Rigny, Maison. Turks: Sultan Mahmoud II., Ibrahim Pacha, Redschid Pacha. Remarkable siege. The garrison of Missolonghi compelled by famine to surrender, (April, 1826.) Decisive battle. The total destruction of the Turco-Egyptian fleet, (October 26th, 1827,) at Navarino. Consequences of the battle of Navarino. The Sultan declared all treaties at an end; and though he consented to allow the Greeks an amnesty, he altogether rejected the idea of recognizing their independence. Hereupon, the three protecting powers declared Greece an independent state, and settled its northern boundary along a line drawn from the gulf of Volo to the gulf of Arta. The Greeks invited Capo d'Istrias, a native of Corfu, who had served with distinction as a political agent of Russia, to be their president, (1828.) Capo d'Istrias (whose severity had rendered him exceedingly unpopular) having fallen by the hand of an assassin, (1831,) the great powers nominated, as hereditary king of Greece, Prince Otto, of Bavaria, (1832.) He ruled Greece under the name of Otto I., from 1833 until 1862, when he was deprived of his throne by an insurrection. He was succeeded by George I. (See GENEALOGY, XIV.) Theatre of war. Turkey in Europe, and Asia Minor. Object of the war. The annihilation of the Turkish Empire. Result of the war. The establishment of Russian influence in the north (Moldavia and Wallachia,) and in the south (Greece) of Turkey. Parties. Russia against Turkey. France and England remained idle spectators of this war, though a French army, under General Maison, was despatched to occupy the Morea. Commanders. Russian: Wittgenstein, DIEBITSCH, Paskiewitsch. Campaign. The Russians, under Wittgenstein, crossed the Pruth, in May, captured Braila and Varna, but were unable to pass the Balkan. This, however, was effected in the following summer by General Diebitsch, who, having taken Shumla, crossed the mountains and appeared before Adrianople, which immediately surrendered. The Russians had also been successful in Asia. Peace. The Porte, seeing the inutility of further resistance, signed the peace of Adrianople, (September, 1829.) Conditions of peace. 1. Russia received some districts near the Caucasus, with the fortress of Anopa. 2. The independence of Greece was recognized. 3. The independence of Servia was guaranteed. 4. The hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia were to be appointed for life, and no Turks were to reside in those principalities. XVI. The Mexican War. Cause. The annexation of Texas to the United States, in 1845. Object of the war. The recovery of Texas by the Mexicans. Commanders. American: TAYLOR, SCOTT, and Wool. Mexican: Santa Anna, Arista, Ampudia, Morales, Valencia. Battles. Eleven battles were fought. The Americans were always victorious. In 1846: Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey. In 1847: Buena Vista, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Cherubusco, Molino del Rey, Chapultepec. Cause of peace. The taking of the city of Mexico by the Americans, on the 14th of September, 1847, made an end to the war. Peace. At Guadalupe Hidalgo, (February, 1848.) New Mexico and California were ceded to the United States, and, in return, the Mexican government was to receive $15,000,000 for the ceded territory. The European states had gradually ranged themselves into two classes. In the first class were the constitutionally governed states: Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and some of the minor German states. There was another class of states, however, including Russia, Austria, Prussia, some of the minor German states, and all the Italian states, in which the theory was that the right of ruling and making laws belonged absolutely to certain dynasties, who, although morally bound to consult the interest of the governed populations, were not responsible to their subjects for their manner of doing so. In all such absolutely governed states, there was a chronic strife between the people and their rulers. It was evident that a conflict was in preparation between the opposed principles of absolutism and representative government. The year 1848 witnessed the outbreak of this movement. It began in France, where the attempts of Louis Philippe and his prime minister, Guizot, to render the government gradually independent of the nation, and to follow the footsteps of the absolute empires, created a deep-felt discontent, which was increased by the unprecedented scarcity of the years 1846 and 1847. Disturbances broke out in several places, and the liberal party began to agitate an electoral reform. II. The Revolution. a. The Political Revolution. The king, on opening the chambers, December 27th, 1847, plainly intimated his conviction that no reform was needed. In consequence of this, very sharp debates took place on the address, and the opposition determined to have a colossal reform banquet in the Champs Elysées, on February 22d, 1848; but it was forbidden by Guizot. The parliamentary liberals resented this act of power, and the republicans seized the opportunity. Barricades were erected in the streets of Paris, and Louis Philippe was obliged to abdicate, and flee with his family to England. France was declared once more to be a republic, and a provisional government was established under Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Arago, etc. b. The attempted Social Revolution. The same dangerous elements were again afloat as in the first revolution, and if they did not gain the ascendency, it was because the higher and middle classes, instructed by experience, actively opposed them. Fifty-one communist clubs were established in Paris. The ultra-democrats, Cabet, Blanqui, and Raspail, formed a sort of triumvirate, and incited these clubs to proceed to extremities, in order to establish a red republic under Ledru-Rollin. But the citizens and National Guards were on the alert; 100,000 National Guards assembled to preserve the peace, and the communist party were overawed. From this day, (April 16th, 1848,) the extreme party was defeated. c. The Great Socialistic Outbreak. The revolutionists of February had pronounced it to be the duty of the state to provide employment for its citizens, and had followed up this declaration by the establishment of national workshops with a view to the organization of labor. Thus the state was converted into a master-manufacturer, to whose service, as the pay was good and the superintendence not over-strict, flocked all the lazy, skulking mechanics of Paris and its neighborhood. They soon numbered 80,000, to be maintained at the public expense, for the ruin of private tradesmen. An attempt of the government to dismiss part of these workmen produced one of the bloodiest battles Paris had yet seen, (300 barricades thrown up and 16,000 people killed and wounded.) The battle began on June 23d, and lasted four days; but the insurgents were at length subdued by the superior force of the troops of the line and the National Guards. General Cavaignac, who had been appointed dictator during the struggle, now laid down his office, but was appointed chief of the Executive Commission, with the title of president of the council. III. The Reaction. The fear which socialism had inspired, had produced among the more educated classes a reaction in favor of monarchy. A new constitution was prepared, by which France was declared a republic, headed by a president, elected every four years by the direct suffrages of all the electors, in whom was vested the sole executive authority. The legislative authority was committed to a single assembly of 750 members, elected by all Frenchmen who had attained their twenty-first year. For the presidency became candidates, Louis Napoleon, (Napoleon III., see GENEALOGY, VII.,) Cavaignac, Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, and Raspail. In his address to the electors, Louis Napoleon promised order at home, peace abroad, a reduction of taxes, and a ministry chosen from the best and most able men of all parties. The peasantry and the common soldiers were his chief supporters. The election took place, December 10th, when Napoleon obtained five and a half million of votes, while Cavaignac, who stood next, had only about one and a half million, and the other candidates but very small numbers. Napoleon was installed in the office which he had thus triumphantly won, December 20th, 1848. nand II., (1835–1848,) may be said to have consisted in an incessant war between the central government and the four following elements of revolt: 1. GERMAN LIBERALISM, or the longing for political freedom and constitutional government, which existed chiefly among the young men of the educated classes. They were full of democratic opinions, and anxious for a revolution which would destroy the existing despotism. 2. MAGYARISM, or the desire of the Magyars (the ruling race in Hungary) to free their country from all foreign (Austrian) influence. They did not regard themselves as a portion of the Austrian Empire at all, but as a separate nation, whose hereditary sovereign chanced also to be the hereditary sovereign of Austria. There were two parties, however, in Hungary. a. The Old Magyar Party, who wished to concede political rights to none but the Magyar nobles, they being, as it were, a governing caste in the midst of Slavonians and other serfs. b. The New Hungarian Party, who thought the independence of Hungary could only be maintained by admitting all inhabitants of Hungary alike to political rights, and forming Magyars, Slavonians, and other races into one powerful nation. KosSUTH was their leader. 3. ITALIAN PATRIOTISM, or the attempt of the inhabitants of the LombardoVenetian kingdom to free themselves of the rule of the detested foreigners, (Austrians.) They continually formed conspiracies for overthrowing their rule; and it was only by a vigilant system of police and by keeping large garrisons in Venice, Milan, Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, Legnano, etc., that the Austrians were able to maintain their authority. 4. SLAVISM, or SLAVONIAN NATIONALITY, or the longings of the various Slavonian populations of the empire (Bohemians, Moravians, Croatians, Illyrians,) to free themselves from German rule. John Kollar, of Pesth, a man of poetical and fervid, and, at the same time, of scholarly mind, first propounded the doctrine of Panslavism, or the union of all the 80 millions of Slavonians, (one-fifth of which belonged to Austria,) whether Russians, Bohemians, Servians, or Croatians, into one Slavonian Empire. As privy-chancellor of state, Metternich acted in all matters for the emperor. A man of pleasing manners, and highly cultivated mind, it was his object to govern despotically, and yet to let the despotism be as little felt as possible. This system of paternal government might have succeeded in a small state. In so large an empire, however, the personal manner of the ruler could not penetrate far; and hence it was only by harshness and severity on the part of the resident officials, by arrest of discontented individuals, and by employing military forces collected in one part of the empire to keep down revolt in another, that the vari ous provinces and populations could be held together. The French revolution produced an insurrection of the different nationalities subject to the Austrian sway. The whole strength of that vast, but ill-compacted empire, seemed to collapse in a single day. It was not enough that the German parts of its dominions had constitutional government conceded to them. The Hungarian, Slavonian, and Italian subjects had their separate quarrels with the Austrian government, and seized the opportunity of separate action. II. The Austro-Hungarian Revolution. a. The Outbreak and its Consequences. When the news of the French revolution arrived in Hungary, KossuтH carried, in the diet at Pesth, an address to the emperor-king, (March 3d,) demanding a national government, purged from all foreign influence. Metternich prepared to resist this demand by military force. The insurrection of the Viennese, however, having driven Metternich into exile, and compelled the Austrian emperor to grant a constitution to his German subjects, the Hungarians gained the day. The archduke Stephen was named Hungarian palatine, and Kossuth was appointed secretary of the treasury, (March 18th.) The hopes of the German democrats were now fixed upon Vienna, where the people had obtained the mastery, and were supported by Kossuth with the whole strength of Hungary. After consenting to the establishment of a constituent imperial diet, the emperor had fled to the Tyrol, and Kossuth, through his partisans, ruled as effectually in Vienna as in Pesth. b. Panşlavism and the beginning of the reaction. The sixteen millions of Slavonians subject to Austria thought the time at hand for realizing their Panslavic dreams. A congress of deputies, professing to represent all the Slavonian populations of Europe, (with the exception of Russia,) met at Prague, in May, 1848. PALACKY, the historian of Bohemia, was the soul of this movement. The people of Prague, tired of the oratory of this congress, broke out in insurrection, (June 11th.) The suppression of this insurrection by Prince Windischgrätz, was the first reactionary triumph of the imperial arms, and this was followed by a rising of the southern Slavonians in favor of the emperor. c. The South-Slavonian reaction. The Croat chief, Jellachich, who had been made ban (governor) of Croatia by the emperor, put himself at the head of this movement. Jellachich, at the head of 65,000 Croats and other Slavonians, invaded Hungary, (September 11th,) avowedly as an officer of the emperor intrusted with the task of reducing the Hungarians to obedience. But on the 29th of September, a Hungarian army met the advancing Croats under Jellachich, defeated, it and drove it toward the Austrian frontier. Great was the excitement at Vienna, when it became known that Jellachich was in full retreat toward the city. The excitement was increased when an imperial decree appeared, dissolving the Hungarian diet, placing Hungary under martial law, and appointing Jellachich governor of the country. The Viennese, recognizing in this blow struck at the Hungarians, a blow struck at their own liberties, rose in insurrection. d. The Revolt of Vienna. On the 6th of October, 1848, the revolt broke out in Vienna. The emperor, after the march of the imperial troops against the Hungarians had been opposed by the national guard, and the minister of war (Latour) sacrificed to the fury of the populace, a second time quitted his capital, and fled to Olmütz. A revolutionary government was organized, consisting of the democratic leaders of the Viennese diet, assisted by some members of the Frankfort parliament, (among them, Robert Blum.) The military command was intrusted to Bem, a Pole of Galicia. For ten days, Bem maintained the defence against the united armies of Windischgrätz and Jellachich, (80,000 men,) who had laid siege to the city in the name of the emperor. Bem's sole hope of ultimate success, however, was that the Hungarians, in whose behalf they had made the revolution, would come to their relief. They did come, but too late. When the Hungarian army, under Görgey appeared before Vienna, on the 30th of October, 1848, the bombardment The of the city was at an end, and Windischgrätz was already entering it. Viennese were subjected to the usual consequences of an unsuccessful revolt: Blum and others were shot or hanged, and Bem escaped with difficulty. But a revolution now ensued at court, and on December 2d, 1818, the emperor Ferdinand IV. abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, the present emperor. (See GENEALOGY, XVI.) e. The Austro-Hungarian War. Cause. The refusal of Hungary to acknowledge the abdication of Ferdinand IV. and the accession of Francis Joseph. Duration. Nine months, (December, 1848- August, 1849.) Object of the war. The annihilation of the Hungarian liberties and independence. Result of the war. Total subjugation of Hungary. Parties. The Hungarians, against the imperial government, which was assisted by the southern Slavonians and Russians. Commanders. Hungarian: Görgey, Bem, Dembinski, Klapka, Perczel, Damianich, and Guyon. Imperial: Windischgrätz, Jellachich, Welden, Haynau. Russian: Paskiewitsch and Rüdiger. Campaign. The task of reducing Hungary was intrusted to Windischgrätz, who soon entered Pesth without opposition, (January 5th, 1849.) But now the tide turned. Battle after battle was fought, and for four months Hungary was the scene of a war far more terrible and gigantic than any that Europe had known since the days of Napoleon. The successes of the Hungarians were such as to astonish the world. By the month of April, the Austrians had been driven from Hungary, and the Hungarians had chosen Kossuth as their governor. Vienna itself was threatened. Austria now accepted the aid of Russia. Toward the close of April, a Russian army, entering Hungary from the north, began to co-operate with fresh Austrian and Croatian armies. Even against this overwhelming force, the Hungarians kept up a brave defence till the 13th of August, 1849, on which day Görgey surrendered to the Russians. Result. Hungary was now at the mercy of the victors. At first there were rumors that the Russian emperor meant to keep the country, and proclaim its independence of Austria, with one of his own sons as king. The czar, however, resigned Hungary back into the hands of the Austrian emperor, whose agents |
