(especially Haynau) distinguished themselves by the most horrible acts of cruelty, perpetrated in his name, by way of vengeance.

III. The Lombardian Revolution.

(See under ITALY.)

C. GERMANY. I.

General Causes.

Liberal ideas had been spontaneously making progress in Germany. The French revolution of 1830 had agitated the minor states, and had obliged the governments of the majority of these states to grant constitutions to their subjects. These constitutions were after the model of that of France; but the German princes soon found the means of imitating Louis Philippe, and practically neutralizing the constitutions as much as possible by all kinds of restrictions on the press, and on popular liberty. The consequences of this were a wide-spread discontent.

The French revolution set all Germany in a blaze; in the smaller states the excitement displayed itself in a desire for German unity.

II. The Revolution.

a. The Humiliation of the Sovereigns.

Revolutionary symptoms first appeared on the banks of the Rhine. At Mannheim, the people assembled and demanded the freedom of the press, the arming of the people, and a GERMAN PARLIAMENT. In the smaller states everything was at once conceded. The governments of the middle states (Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover,) alone opposed any resistance to the people, till Austria and Prussia were likewise observed to be in confusion. Then, all over Germany, the sovereigns began bowing before their subjects, making speeches to them, promising to govern them on new principles, and asking oblivion for the past.

In Berlin, King Frederick William IV. granted not only all demands, but (after a riot, in which 200 people lost their lives) put himself at the head of the people.

An attempt was even made to place the king of Prussia at the head of the German national movement. On the 21st of March, the army had assumed the German cockade in addition to the Prussian, and the king rode through the city decorated with the three German colors, (black, red, and gold.) A proclamation was issued declaring that Prussia rises into Germany. These proceedings produced a bad impression in Germany, and were nearly everywhere received with unconcealed scorn.

b. The German Parliament.

The leaders of the opposition in the various German representative assemblies held a meeting at Heidelberg, (March 8th,) and published a proclamation to the

.

German nation, promising them a national representation, and inviting them to attend a preliminary parliament, in which a representative system was to be prepared. It was opened in the church of St. Paul, at Frankfort, March 31st, 1848, where it was agreed that a general constituent assembly should be held at Frankfort, to which deputies should be sent (one for every 50,000) from every part of Germany. It assembled on the 18th of May, for the purpose of giving Germany a constitution. Various schemes were propounded. The more extreme liberals advocated that of a great federal republic. The prevailing opinion, however, was in favor of a revived German Empire, and the archduke John (uncle of the emperor) was elected imperial vicar. The diet of the confederation held then its last sitting, (July 12th,) and handed over its power to the imperial vicar. The German parliament, which was now the supreme authority in the empire, wasted its time on abstract and speculative questions, and no results of practical importance followed its deliberations. They elected by a small majority the king of Prussia hereditary emperor, (March 28th, 1849;) a dignity, however, which Frederick William IV. declined to accept. After this election Austria withdrew her representatives from the parliament, which example was soon followed by Prussia and Saxony. That assembly was also reduced, by the voluntary desertion of other members, to little more than 100 persons, who, deeming themselves no longer secure in Frankfort, transferred their sittings to Stuttgardt. Here they deposed the imperial vicar, and appointed a new regency, consisting of five members. But, as they began to call the people to arms, they were dispersed by the Würtemberg government, (June 18th, 1849.)

III. The Reaction.

The constituent assembly for Prussia, which was opened at Berlin on the 22d of May, 1848, had expired on the 5th of December, of the same year. Like the Frankfort parliament, it had done nothing but talk. The king, retracting the constitution of 1848, announced that he had a new one in preparation, which was promulgated and sworn to, in February, 1850; since which time the Prussian king has ruled nominally as a constitutional monarch, but really with much of the absolute power which he possessed prior to 1848.

Meanwhile, in the rest of Germany also, matters were gradually resuming their ancient course. The question of the German constitution, however, still remained a cause of disunion. Austria, backed by the influence of Russia, succeeded in re-establishing the federal constitution with the Frankfort diet, as arranged in 1815. The Prussian government now endeavored, in opposition to Austria, to form a new confederation, of which Prussia was to be the presiding power, and which was to consist of all the German states, except Austria. With this view a German parliament was convoked at Erfurt, (March 20th, 1850,) which, however, after a few sittings, indefinitely adjourned. Frederick William IV. made another attempt to form a separate league, by summoning a congress of princes, at Berlin, in May. At the same time, Austria had summoned the diet of the confederation to meet at Frankfort, which was attended by representatives from all the states except Prussia and Oldenburg. Thus, two rival congresses were sitting at the same time: one at Berlin, to establish a new con

federation under Prussian influence; and one at Frankfort, to maintain the old one, under the supremacy of Austria. The quarrel between Prussia and Austria was brought to an issue by the disturbances in Hesse-Cassel, where the elector openly outraged the constitution by proceeding to levy taxes on his own authority, in consequence of which the people rose in revolt, and drove him from his dominions.

The diet at Frankfort resolved to support the elector against his subjects; while Prussia took up the opposite side, and moved a large military force toward the Hessian frontier. A collision appeared inevitable, when hostilities were averted by Russian interference and a change of the cabinet at Berlin. To put an end to these disputes, conferences were opened at Dresden, (December, 1850.) Prussia was induced to acknowledge the Frankfort diet; and the ancient state of things, after three years of revolution and disturbance, was re-established in the German confederation.

The arrangements made by the congress of Vienna with respect to Italy, were such as to leave the Italians universally dissatisfied. At length, a formidable secret society was established among them, with a view to combine the disaffected in all the states in one common effort against the native despots and the Austrians. The conspirators called themselves Carbonari. About the year 1831, Carbonarism was superseded by a new form of Italian patriotism, of a more energetic character. It arose in Piedmont, under the auspices of a number of Genoese youths, who organized themselves into a body called YOUNG ITALY. Their leader and founder was MAZZINI, whose view was: that the freedom of Italy, both from domestic and foreign tyranny, could only be attained by a union of all the separate states into one nationall merging their separate names in the one common name of Italians, and under this name forming a single powerful European nation. But the conspiracy having been prematurely discovered, the Piedmontese government took steps for breaking it up. Many of the chief agents were arrested and put to death; others escaped to Great Britain, (1838.) From that time, no considerable attempt at insurrection was made. The Austrians in northern Italy, and the native dynasties throughout the rest of the peninsula, continued to rule by military force and the terrors of a secret police system.

The accession of Pope Pius IX., (1846,) however, was hailed by the Italians as the dawn of a new day; and immense expectations were formed from the liberal acts of the first year of his pontificate. In the midst of this excitement the news of the French revolution passed through the Italian populations.

the Two Sicilies, the grand-duke Leopold in Tuscany, and the dukes of Modena and Parma, could only keep their thrones by giving or promising constitutions. But, besides thus yielding to the revolutionary force within their own dominions, these sovereigns found themselves obliged to join in a common enterprise for driving the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venice, so as to gratify the longcherished desire of all the Italians to see their native land entirely liberated from foreign thraldom. It was with hesitation that most of the Italian princes joined in the league against Austria a power to which they were all indebted. Charles Albert, of Sardinia, alone took up the cause with spirit. He boldly undertook to lead the Italians in a war with Austria.

b. The Austro-Italian War.

Cause. The hatred of the Italians against the Austrian domination. Duration. Eighteen months, (February, 1848-August, 1849.) Object of the war. To drive the Austrians out of Italy. Result of the war. The Austrian domination in Italy seems to be fixed firmer than ever.

Parties. The united Italians against the Austrian empire.

Great commanders. Austrian: RADETZKY, (then 82 years old,) Nugent, Clam, Giulay, Archduke Albert. Italian: CHARLES ALBERT, (called the Sword of Italy,) Chrzanowski, Pepe.

Decisive battles. Gained by the Austrians: Monte Berici, (near Vicenza,) CUSTOZZA, Vallegio, Mostaza, and NOVARA. Gained by the Italians: Goito, Rivoli, Somma Campagna.

Results of the battle of Novara. Abdication of Charles Albert in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel, (the present king;) armistice and submission of Sardinia.

Peace. At Milan, (August 6th, 1849.) The principal terms were: payment by Piedmont of the expenses of the war, and evacuation by them of Lombardy, Parma, Piacenza, and Modena, and withdrawal of their fleet from the Adriatic. Everything was replaced on the ancient footing.

Siege of Venice. The Venetians, who had associated themselves with Charles Albert, resolved, not withstanding his defeat, to continue the war of independence on their own account; and raising their ancient republican standard of St. Mark, they constituted themselves into a republic, under a triumvirate, of whom the most influential member was MANIN. After Lombardy was again subdued, Radetzky proceeded to invest Venice, (summer, 1848.) It was not reduced by the Austrians till August 22d, 1849, partly by bombardment, partly through the effects of famine.

III. The Reaction.

a. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

The defeat of Charles Albert was a heavy blow to Italian freedom; and the Italian sovereigns availed themselves of it to begin a reactionary policy within their respective states. Ferdinand II. (King Bomba) set the example.

As early as May, 1848, he had contrived, after a fearful massacre in the streets, to become master of Naples. After the battle of Custozza, (July 24th, 1848,) he openly professed his determination to restore despotism throughout his dominions. The constitution was annulled, the cabinet disbanded, and its members imprisoned or driven into exile.

After Naples had been reduced, Sicily continued in a state of rebellion. In July, 1848, the Sicilians chose Ferdinand, brother of Victor Emanuel, for their king; but that prince declined to accept the proffered crown.

Filangieri, with a Neapolitan army, landed at Messina, and captured that town, after a sanguinary struggle. In the spring of 1849, Filangieri reduced Catania and Syracuse, and on the 23d of April he entered Palermo, thus putting an end to the rebellion.

b. Rome.

In the Roman States, the reaction was brought about by the demagogues. The Pope continued to govern the Romans according to the constitution he had granted them. His principal adviser was Count Rossi, who, having incurred the

The Olynthian War.

bitter hatred of the demagogues, was assassinated, (November 15th, 1848.) Upon this the mob attacked the Pope in the Quirinal, and murdered his secretary, Cardinal Palma. The Pope succeeded in escaping, and betook himself to Gaeta. The Roman parliament, having in vain implored him to return, proceeded to establish a provisional government. At length, (February 5th, 1849,) was opened at Rome a general Italian constituent assembly, which began by deposing the Pope as a temporal prince, and proclaiming the Roman republic, (February 8th.) A triumvirate having been chosen to conduct the executive of the republic, MAZZINI became chief triumvir. But soon a reaction commenced. The Austrians began to enter central Italy; while France and Spain also despatched troops to the Pope's aid. A division of 6,000 French troops, under General Oudinot, landed at Civita Vecchia, (April 25th.) After having experienced a signal defeat before the walls of Rome from Garibaldi's volunteers, it began the siege. Oudinot captured Rome, after a two-months' siege, on the 3d of July, 1849. The French remained exclusive masters of the city till April, 1850, when the Pope returned, and re-established his government under their protection.

Theatre of war. The region around Olynthus, a town which stood at the head of the Toronaic gulf, between the peninsulas of Paliene and Sithonia, (north-western part of the Egæan sea.) Parties. The Spartan confederacy against the Olythian confederacy. The dissolution of the Olynthian confederacy.

Object of the war.

Result of the war. The Olynthian confederacy is dissolved. Sparta, by crushing the Olynthian confederacy, virtually surrendered the Thracian Greeks to Macedonia. Never again did the opportunity occur of placing Hellenism on a firm, consolidated, and self-supporting basis, round the coast of the Thermaic gulf.

Commanders. Spartan: Eudamidas, Agesipolis, Polybiades.

Peace. The Olynthians were reduced to such straits that they were obliged to sue for peace, and, breaking up their own federation, enrolled themselves as sworn members of the Lacedæmonian confederacy, under obligations of fealty to Sparta.

Remark. The expedition of the Spartans to Olynthus led incidentally to an affair of much greater importance. Phoebidas, the brother of Eudamidas, was appointed, in 383 B. C., to collect the troops, which were not in readiness at the time of his brother's departure, and to march toward Olynthus. On his way through Boeotia, he encamped in the vicinity of Thebes, where he was visited by Leontiades, one of the polemarchs, and some other leaders of the Spartan army in Thebes. In order to annihilate the democracy, Leontiades persuaded Phoebidas to take possession of the Cadmea, (the citadel of Thebes,) which Leontiades was willing to surrender into his hands.

Social War in Greece.

Cause. The invasion of the Etolians into Messenia (in the Peloponnesus) had led to the total defeat of the Achaan forces, who had marched to the assistance of the Messenians. The AchauNS now saw no hope of safety, except through the assistance of Philip V., the king of Macedonia, who readily listened to their application, and declared war against the Etolians. Duration. About three years, (220-217 B. C.)

Theatre of war. The Peloponnesus and central Greece.

Parties. The Achæans, assisted by Philip V., king of Macedon, against the Etolians, assisted by the Spartans.

Object of the war. To put a stop to the predatory excursions of the Etolians, who for years had carried on a system of organized robbery.

Result of the war. The Etolian confederacy remains as it was before, the curse of Greece.

Campaign. Philip V. inflicted a severe blow upon the Etolians, (218 B. C.,) by an unexpected march into the interior of their country, where he surprised their capital, THERMUM.

Cause of peace. The desire of Philip to turn his arms against the Romans, made him conclude peace with the Etolians.

Remark. The long-discussed alliance between Carthage and Macedonia had been delayed by this social war. It was only after the splendid victory of Hannibal at Trasimenus, (217,) that Demetrius of Pharos found Philip disposed to listen to his proposal to cede to Macedonia his Illyrian possessions--which it was necessary, however, to wrest in the first place from the Romans-and it was only now that the court of Macedonia came to terms with Carthage.

Macedonia undertook to land an invading army on the east coast of Italy, in return for which she received an assurance that the Roman possessions in Epirus should be restored to Macedonia. Library.

The Egyptian Ptolemies founded the vast library of Alexandria, which was afterward the emulative labor of rival monarchs. It was begun by Ptolemy Soter (306-285 B. c.) in the Museum, which stood near the royal palace, in the quarter of the city called Brucheium, and was hence called the Brucheium library. When this building had been completely occupied with books to the number of 400,000 volumes, a supplemental library was erected within the Serapeum, or temple of Serapis; and the books there placed gradually increased to the amount of 300,000 volumes; thus making in both libraries a grand total of 700,000 volumes. The measures adopted by the Ptolemies to bring together this collection were rather curious. They caused all books imported into Egypt by foreigners to be seized and sent to the Museum, where they were transcribed by persons employed for the purpose; upon which the copies were delivered to the proprietors, and the originals deposited in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B. C.) bor

rowed of the Athenians the works of Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, caused them to be transcribed in the most elegant manner; retained the originals for the Alexandrian library, and returned to the Athenians the copies which had been made of them, with 15 talents (talent = $1250) for the exchange. The library continued in all its splendor until Cresar's Alexandrian war, when the oldest (the Bruchcium) portion of the collection was destroyed by order of Cæsar. But the library in the Serapeum still remained, and was augmented by subsequent donations, particularly by that of the Pergamean library, (amounting to 200,000 volumes,) presented by Mark Antony, in 34 B. C., to Cleopatra. After various revolutions, during which the collection was sometimes plundered and sometimes re-established, it was utterly destroyed by the Saracens, under the orders of the caliph Omar, about 638 A. D. "If," said the caliph, "these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed."