The amount voted by the Diet in 1887 for elementary education was $246,395, namely: For elementary schools in cities and rural districts, $155,801; for teachers' seminaries fitting teachers for primary schools, $75,960; for inspection of elementary schools, $11,260; incidentals, manual training, etc., $3,374. (VII, p. 464.)

The amount raised in the communes or districts is not known to date. The amount received from tuition fees is not known. Tuition fees1 are, however, requisite in secondary schools, the fees varying in amount according to the subjects of instruction. (X, p. 216.)

Expenditure. The expenditures for the year 1889 included the followlowing amounts: For the university and polytechnic school, $168,453; supervision of schools and for higher educational institutions, $466,264; normal and public elementary schools, $254,670; professional schools, 854,413; institutions for blind and deaf mutes, $17,518; incidentals, $5,539; rental of buildings, $13,802; reserve funds for elementary schools, $77,200; agricultural and dairy schools, $57,707. (I, pp. 161, 162.)

IV.-SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION.

State supervision.-The "Ofverstyrelsen for Skolväsendet," or higher council of education, at Helsingfors, has supervision of elementary, secondary, and special schools. This board or council is an adjunct of the imperial senate of Finland (administrative department), and of the section of public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs. It regulates the programmes for schools from the pedagogical and technical side, and attends to apportionment of school material, etc. Private schools subsidized by the state are under the supervision of this central organization. There is also an inspector in chief for elementary education and normal schools, who is appointed by the Czar at the suggestion of the board or council. His duties as presiding officer of the central board are to decide upon all questions appertaining to elementary instruction. The University as reorganized by law of 1852 is under control of the academic authorities, consisting of the rector and 12 professors; in cases of special importance 32 professors are added to this board. Any project modifying its organization must be referred to the senate and there receive imperial sanction ere it can be carried out. (VII, pp. 462-464, 497, 498.)

Local supervision.-A local inspector has charge of elementary schools in each governmental subdivision or province. A council of education has the immediate inspection of the communal schools. This council is composed of 4 to 6 members, who serve without pay. (VII, p. 464.) The local supervision of secondary schools is in charge of a council

'In 1873 it was stated that secondary schools, though public, were not free, the tuition fees varying as above mentioned. Later legislation may have modified this statement.

ED. 89-15

of state composed of 3 to 5 members appointed by the central or higher council of education, the names of the appointees being suggested by the communal authorities. (VII, p. 465.)

V-TEACHERS,

Preparation.-Teachers for the elementary grades receive the requisite preparation at the normal school in Jyväskylä (Jyväskylä seminarium), which, founded in 1863, has, with its two divisions for men and for women, the special object of preparing teachers for the districts where Finnish is spoken. The normal school for women at Ekenäs (Ekenäs lärarinne seminarium) established in 1871, and the normal for men at Nykarleby (Nykarleby lärare seminarium), established in 1873, prepare teachers for the Swedish-speaking population. There is also a school with two divisions, the "Sordavala Seminarium," which has 16 teachers and 122 pupils. The schools have a four years' course, the last year being more particularly for practice in the elementary schools of higher and lower grade, each seminary having such schools attached to it. The normals for women have each a kindergarten and infant school, so that the pupils may early train themselves to fill positions in such schools. The normals receive both boarding and day pupils, the greater proportion being day pupils. The age at which pupils are received in the seminaries is eighteen years.

Many of the professors connected with city schools of elementary grade have received a university education; the women teachers in similar schools formerly attended pedagogical courses at Helsingfors. (I, p. 105; VI, p. 48; VII, p. 461.)

Examinations.-There are examinations at the close of the normal school course, the passing of which entitles the graduate to a certificate of qualification to teach, but further information as to examinations and licensing has not been obtained. (X, p. 215.)

Appointment. The appointment of teachers is made by the higher council of education. (X, p. 215.)

Tenure of office.-The tenure of office is for life, subject to removal after trial by the higher authorities. (X, p. 205.)

Salaries. The salaries of teachers in district elementary schools average $154 for men, and $116 for women. This salary is paid by the governmental authorities, and the district authorities add lodgings, containing at least two rooms and a kitchen, with ground for gardening, and pasturage enough for a cow. Salaries1 of teachers and professors in higher grade schools not known to date. (VI, p. 49; VII, pp. 461, 462.)

1 According to a statement made in 1873, after the first ten years' teaching, the salary is increased 20 per cent. for 5 years, and 10 per cent. for each subsequent 5 years. The salaries of regular teachers in Real schools ranged at that date from $463 to $579 with lodging; in lyceums, from $540 to $887 with lodging; in girls' schools from $579 to $772 for men, with lodging; and from $307 to $463 for women, with lodging. The principal of each school received from $57 to $193 additional compensation. (X, pp. 215, 216.)

Teachers' pensions.-No information to date.1

Teachers' institutes.-No mention is made of any such meetings, but the advanced educational movements noted in Finland would imply that such conferences were held from time to time for the discussion of educational questions.

VI. COURSES OF STUDY.

Kindergarten.-Instruction in the kindergarten not specified, but doubtless Fröbel's methods are carried out. The earliest teachings for children are commenced at home, or else they learn to read in ambulatory schools, which move from district. to district every 2 or 3 months. (VI, p. 50.)

Elementary schools.-The course in elementary schools is 4 years, divided into two parts of 2 years each. These form the higher and lower grade of elementary schools. The course of study is so arranged that the two lower classes are complete in themselves; the higher classes simply continue the course and introduce new methods. The studies for the higher elementary grades are religion, mother tongue, geography, history, arithmetic, elements of plane and descriptive geometry, natural sciences and their applications, drawing, singing, gymnastics, manual training for boys, and feminine handiwork for girls. In the lower elementary grades the same studies, omitting history, geography, geometry, and natural sciences. Manual training is made a specialty in elementary grades, and occupies about 5 hours a week in each class. (VII, p. 462.) The course of study in the industrial schools is either a continuation of that found in the elementary schools, or it is adapted to prepare students for special schools. (VI, p. 51.)

Secondary schools.-The secondary schools form three groups, i. e., lyceums with eight classes or years, with course of study leading directly to universities or special schools; elementary schools for boys with two, three, four, or five classes or years, the programme corresponding to that of similar classes in the lyceum; elementary schools for girls with five classes. Pupils are admitted at 9 years of age in the boys' schools, and 11 years of age in the girls' schools. Studies for these. grades are religion, Swedish, Finnish; Russian (in boys' schools); Ger

'Teachers' pensions: In 1873 it was stated that teachers of elementary schools after 30 years' service were entitled to a retiring pension for life, equal to the Government allowance for the last year's salary of the teacher. Teachers of secondary grades who have taught 35 years, may retire with an annuity equal to the salary at that date; after 30 years with three-quarters of his salary; and after 25 years with the half; after 20 years' service with one-quarter salary; and if afflicted with incurable disease at an earlier period, he is entitled also to a pension. Later information in regard to this point is wanting. (X, p. 216.)

"A teachers' association was organized in 1863 at Tavastehus, its central organization being in Helsingfors, however, with branches in several cities. Meetings were held once a month Regular conventions were called every 3 years for discussion of educational matters. (X, p. 221.)

man, French, English (in Real lyceums); the classics, history, geography, botany, zoology, physics, mathematics, drawing, singing, gymnastics; and in girls' schools feminine handiwork. (V, p. 466.)

Two normal lyceums (Swedish and Finnish) in Helsingfors serve as practice schools for persons who intend to become teachers in secondary grades. Two Swedish and Finnish continuation schools for girls in Helsingfors have each a 3 years' course of pedagogical study.

The seven schools for girls supported by the Grand Duchy comprise in their courses of study modern languages, whatever scientific branches are required to give a solid education, and the pupils receive instruction in feminine handiwork. Private schools, most of them boarding. schools, prepare pupils for the secondary schools, or have courses similar to the public secondary grades. Among the private schools are six lyceums, five Swedish, and one Finnish, where boys and girls are educated together. (VII, p. 466; VI, p. 52.)

As a type of the course of study in commercial schools, that of the "Brahestads Borgare och Handelsskola" is given. It includes Swedish, Finnish, German, and English languages, Russian and French optional, (these branches so taught as to cover grammatical construction, keeping of books, correspondence, etc.), mathematics, commercial bookkeeping (including double entry), physics and chemistry, national economy, geography and history, penmanship and gymnastics, through all classes. (IV, pp. 23-28.)

Higher education.-The course of study in normal schools prepares teachers to be instructors in the primary grades; the studies are not specified. The university has the four faculties: Theology, law, medicine, science and letters, including an historical philological section, and a physico-mathematical section. (I, p.95.) Connected with this institu tion are anatomical and pathological institutes; chemical and pharmaceutical and physiological laboratories; an astronomical observatory; a gymnasium; kindergarten; library, museum of history, ethnography, sculpture, etc. (VII, p. 497.)

Classed under special schools, some of which are of secondary and others of higher grade, is the polytechnic school "Polytekniska Institutel," which in a 4 years' course prepares its students to be either architects and builders or mechanical engineers, land surveyors, or as "Kemisk Teknolog," (that is, to have knowledge of chemistry as applied to building materials used in construction). During the first year's course the studies are in common. The course in land surveying, however, is only of 2 years' duration. (III, pp. 1–27, VII, p. 498.)

Another technical school, the Agricultural Institute, which bears the same relation to the fifteen agricultural schools that the university bears to the secondary schools, has a number of specialists connected with it who are experienced in all branches of agriculture. The aim of this institute is to diffuse general knowledge of agriculture and other cognate matters, to aid and advise in regard to agricultural machines,

to the cultivation of foreign plants, to form plans and estimates for reclaiming waste lands, etc. The course of study may be inferred from the following classification of the members of the teaching force, namely: One agricultural engineer, one governmental agronomist, eight provincial agronomists, ten assistant agronomists, one expert to give instruction in flax-growing and flax-scutching, two teachers of dairy farming designated by the Government, and two by provincial authorities, eleven women teachers from the provinces to teach dairying, two masters of forestry, one lecturer on arboriculture, six teachers of horticulture, two controllers of grain and seed, three instructors in the art of plowing, and one inspector of fisheries. Courses of popular lectures on agricultural subjects are also carried on in remote divisions of the Grand Duchy. The Institute of Forestry, by its course of study, also aids in instructing the people to make the most of nature's gifts. It forms an advanced course for the school of forestry. (IX, pp. 50-65.)

VII.-SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF DISCIPLINE.

The methods employed in teaching children in both city and rural schools follow the latest developments in pedagogical science.

Corporal punishment is not employed; the teacher relies on the honor of his pupils. (IX, pp. 50–65.)

The pupils in elementary and secondary schools are examined annually for promotion. (X, p. 216.)

Little is known in regard to methods of study and recitations, but it is stated that most of the subjects are taught from the text-books and orally, and that in the plan of studies five hours a week are devoted to instruction in manual training in each class of the elementary grades. The methods of study and formation of programmes are determined, however, by a commission appointed by the higher council of education, this commission having authority to investigate as to the very latest improvements in pedagogical methods. Formerly boys and girls were taught separately. Of late years coeducation has been attempted in many schools, the first schools of this kind being established in Helsingfors in 1883, and women are admitted to the university as students. (VII, p, 462; X, pp. 215-216; V, pp. 70-80.).

VIII.-SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.

Buildings and grounds.-Information is wanting in regard to the general condition of school buildings and the grounds, if any, around them. But it is stated that in Helsingfors the school buildings are constructed with vast corridors, spacious and well-ventilated class-rooms, lighted by electricity, and large halls for gymnastic exercises. The buildings are supplied with all necessary school material, and have extensive playgrounds connected with them. (IX, pp. 50–65.)