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Libraries in Canada

liothek su. Buchwesens (1904 to date); Library Work: A Bibliography and Digest of Current Library Literature (1906 to date); Teggart's Library Literature in England and the United States During the 19th Century (1901); Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen (1884 to date); Library Association Record (London, 1899 to date); Oesterreichischer Verein für Bibliothekswesen (1896 to date); Brown's Manual of Library Economy (London, 1903); Bostwick's American Public Library (1910).

Libraries in Canada.-In Nova Scotia the most important libraries are centred in the city of Halifax. Of these, the largest is the Citizens' Public Library, with about 30,000 volumes. The Legislative Library contains 17,000, and the Library of Dalhousie University. 14,500 volumes. The various denominational colleges in the province also maintain libraries of less importance. In Prince Edward Island the Legislative Library in Charlottetown contains 12,000 vols. In New Brunswick there is a Legislative Library of 15,000 volumes, and the library of the University of New Brunswick (10,000 vols.), both in Fredericton. St. John has a public library (28,000 vols.). Law libraries are also maintained in the cities mentioned above.

In the province of Quebec the principal libraries are situated in the cities of Montreal and Quebec. In Montreal there are more than thirty of varying degrees of importance, some with only a few thousand volumes. The largest is that of McGill University, with 125,000 volumes and 20,000 pamphlets. The Fraser Institute has 50,000 volumes. In the city of Quebec the largest are those of Laval University (135,000 vols.) and the Legislative Library (70,000 vols.).

In Ontario by far the largest library is that of the Dominion Government, in Ottawa, with 250,000 volumes. Next come the Toronto Public Library (180,000 vols. and pamphlets), the library of the University of Toronto (91,000 vols.), Queens University Library (50,000 vols.), and the law library of Osgood Hall (40,000 vols.). In 1908 there were in Ontario 351 public libraries which made returns to the provincial government, having 1,234,000 volumes.

In the Western Provinces there are legislative libraries of 50,000 and 35,000 volumes in Winnipeg and Victoria respectively, with smaller libraries in the newer provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Winnipeg has also a free public library with 36,000 volumes, and Vancouver one with 16,000 volumes. The University of Manitoba has 14,000 volumes in its library, the University of Alberta 12,000.

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The provinces of Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia have established small travelling libraries for circulation among the lumber and construction camps of the backwoods. Travelling libraries and a library summer school are also maintained by and in connection with the library of McGill University. The Reading Camp Association of Canada has 25 reading rooms and night schools in the frontier country, which are moved about among the people whom they serve. The Aberdeen Association is also doing good work in providing reading matter for this part of the population.

Library of Congress (Washington, D. C.) was founded in 1800 as a legislative library for the use of Congress, but is now, in effect, the National Library of the United States, with collections in every field of literature, and freely serving not only the several branches of the government, but the general public. From 1800 to 1897 it was housed in the Capitol; then removed to a distinct building the largest library building in the world, erected at a cost (including land) of $7,000,000. It is maintained by annual appropriations (by Congress), which for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1910, amounted to $825,000. the size of its collections the Congressional Library ranks third among the libraries of the worldbeing exceeded only by the National Library at Paris and the British Museum. On July 1, 1910, it had 1,793,159 printed volumes and pamphlets; 118,651 maps and charts; 517,806 pieces of music; 320,251 prints; and many thousand manuscripts. Its sources of in

In

crease include, besides purchase and individual gift: (1) Copyright deposit (of every article entered for American copyright); (2) international exchange (of official documents); (3) Smithsonian exchanges (of society publications). Among its notable collections are: (1) Manuscripts (the most important extant for the sources of American history); (2) official documents of all countries; (3) serials; (4) American imprints; (5) maps, charts, and atlases; (6) bibliography, history, political and social science, law, etc. The staff numbers (for all purposes) over 500 persons.

Besides the ordinary service of a public, reference, research library, and its special service to the government, the Library of Congress (1) lends books to other libraries for the use of serious investigators; (2) answers requests for bibliographic information; (3) publishes and distributes reference lists and bibliographies indicating useful literature on particular subjects; (4) deposits, without charge, in some forty libraries complete sets of its printed catalogue cards; (5) sells at cost other copies of these cards,

Librations

[graphic]

The Moon's Librations.

1. Part always seen; 2, part carried out of view by libration; 3, part brought into view by libration; 4, part never seen. kinds: (1) Libration in latitude is an alternate dipping toward the earth of the moon's north and south poles by an angle of 64°. It is due to the inclination of her axis to the plane of her orbit. (2) Libration in fongitude. If the moon's orbit were circular, the same hemisphere would always be presented to the earth; but the eccentricity of her path causes her motion to vary, and we see portions of her averted face, now on the eastern, now on the western side, to a maximum extent of 7° 45'. (3) Diurnal libration is an effect of our own shift of position between morning and evening. We look over the western edge of the rising moon and over the eastern edge of the setting moon by just 1°, which is the value of the moon's parallax, or the angle subtended at the moon's distance by the semi-diameter of the earth. As the result of these various inequalities, nearly six-tenths of the lunar surface comes under observation. The planet Mercury also exhibits librational effects.

Libretto

Libretto (Italian, 'little book'), a name now generally applied to the words or story of a musical drama. The task of making a story so clear and straightforward that the salient points can be grasped by means of gestures is one of such difficulty that few librettos are noticeably good, while the majority are proverbially weak, in spite of the fact that Voltaire, Addison, Fielding, Goethe, and Willard have attempted this form of art. To give fullest expression to his ideas, Wagner discarded the usual traditions, and wrote most of his own librettos. The most noted Italian librettists have been Metastasio, Calzabigi, and Felice Romano; French-the Abbé Perrin, Quinault, Scribe (perhaps the greatest), Barbier, Meilhac, and Halévy; German-Geibel and Schikaneder; English-John Gay, Alfred Bunn, Edward Fitzball, Planché, and Gilbert.

The librettos of many operas are founded upon subjects taken from the works of Shakespeare, Scott, Goethe, Goldsmith, and others. The difficulty of the librettist's task has led to the adaptation for opera of successful plays. The opera Traviata was adapted from Dumas' play Camille; while the story of The Chocolate Soldier, with music by Strauss, had its origin in Shaw's Arms and the Man.

A notable adaptation in 1910 was that by Puccini of David Belasco's drama, The Girl of the Golden West, under the title, La Fanciulla del West. See OPERA.

Liburnia, district of Illyricum, along the coast of the Adriatic, forms part of the modern Croatia. See CROATIA-SLAVONIA.

Libya, ancient geographical name for the continent of Africa. In Roman times the term was specifically applied to the region now known as the Libyan Desert (g.v.).

Libyan Desert, region North Africa, including parts of Egypt, Tripoli, and Barca, and lying to the west of the Nile. It is an immense stony plateau, rising from 600 to 1,000 ft. above the Nile level in gentle terraces. A series of deep depressions contains the famous oases Khargeh, Dakhel, Farafrah, Baharieh, and Siwah. Numerous springs occur in these districts, giving rise to their great fertility. Westward the desert merges into the unexplored wastes of the Sahara.

Licata, or ALICATA, seaport town, province Girgenti, Sicily, at mouth of river Salso, 24 m. southeast of Girgenti. It has ruins of two ancient castles. The principal export is sulphur. The harbor was improved in 1896, and is one of the best in Sicily. Pop. 23,500.

Lice are minute insects belonging to the family Pediculidæ, of the order Hemiptera. The integument is very thin, wings are entirely absent, the thoracic segments are indistinctly separated, and the feet VOL. VII.-Jan. '11.

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end in a single long claw. The head bears a short tube furnished with hooks, and from this a suctorial tube can be protruded, by means of which the insects suck the blood upon which they feed. They are parasitic on the bodies of mammalia, clinging to the hairs by the hooked feet, and are apparently very prolific. Some forty species, belonging to six genera, are known. As a rule, each kind of louse is restricted to one or a few closely related kinds of animals.

License, in law, is an authorization to do some act or carry on some business which would, without such authorization, be illegal. This is

not an easement, and gives no right of property, but is a mere personal authority which may be revoked at any time at the pleasure of the licensor. In a few of the United States it has been held that a license on the strength of which the licensee has gone to considerable expense, as in the building of a dam, is irrevocable, but this is contrary to the weight of authority. Many acts, innocent in themselves, cannot be legally done without a license from the proper authority.

Licenses for which a fee is charged are frequently required for revenue purposes, or to insure a proper official supervision of certain trades or callings, as well as public meetings, street processions, etc. Licenses are in many jurisdictions required for the keeping of dogs, horses, carriages, and automobiles; for the sale of intoxicating liquors, plate, and tobacco; for the manufacture and sale of playing cards and patent medicines, and for the callings of peddler, pawnbroker, auctioneer, and appraiser.

LIQUOR LICENSE.-In general, no intoxicating liquors can be sold, whether at wholesale or at retail, and whether to be drunk on the premises or not, without a license. The conditions of such licenses and the terms on which they are granted vary greatly in different jurisdictions. An assignment of a liquor license will not transfer all the rights of the holder thereunder, but in some States the transferee is entitled to receive from the State a rebate for the unexpired period of the license. Generally, it will not entitle him to sell intoxicating liquors under it, as in form, at least, the character of the person to whom a license is issued must be considered. In most States there are provisions for forfeiture of the license if the holder violates the liquor or excise laws. See EXCISE DUTIES; LIQUOR LAWS; LOCAL OPTION; PROHIBITION.

Lichen (Gr. leichen, 'canker'), an eruption of the skin, is described by some as a popular form of eczema, by others as a distinct disease. It is characterized by the presence of numerous small and red spots which are slightly elevated above

Lichens

the skin, and it may be either localized or widely distributed over the whole body. Soothing lotions or powders usually cure it rapidly. A more chronic and intractable form, however, is known as lichen ruber, which occurs in older people. In this variety the papules coalesce to form patches of uniform induration. In treatment, arsenic has been found of most service; local applications, such as ointments of tar and zinc, are also useful.

Lichenin, or MOSS STARCH, OCcurs in many lichens, notably Iceland moss, from which it may be extracted by boiling water as a gelatinous solution. It is used as a food in invalid cookery. See ICELAND MOSS.

Lichens are the familiar vegetable growths clothing the stems and branches of trees with their shaggy fronds, or forming brilliantly colored patches on roofs, walls, and even on rock-surfaces near the seashore. Some are of commercial value; litmus and orseille are obtained from species of the genus Roccella; the so-called Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) is used as a demulcent. The Laplanders feed their reindeer in the winter on Cladonia rangiferina, and the Tartars make earth-bread' from an encrusting form which grows on rocks in the steppes. The tripe de roche' (Umbilicaria) afforded a valuable food to explorers and voyageurs in Northern Ameri

ca.

Up to about fifty years ago lichens were considered to be independent plants of imperfect organization, forming a division of cryptogams with the fungi and the afgæ, and were believed to derive their nourishment from the medium in which they grew-i.e., from the atmosphere. In 1866 De Bary suggested that they were to be classed as a division of fungi-that is to say, what had been generally regarded as an independent organism really consisted of two plants, a fungus and an algal, associated for the benefit of both. This suggestion of De Bary's was worked out by Schwendener, who gave it to the world as the 'dual hypothesis.' After a long and heated controversy among specialists, the truth of this dual hypothesis may be said to have been demonstrated by the investigations of Reess, Stahl, and Bornet, who have shown that it is possible to separate the two members of the partnership, by breaking up the lichen into fungus and algal, and to combine the two elements so as to form the compound growth. Thus a lichen may be defined as a symbiotic organism, consisting of one of the higher Fungi (Schwendener at first thought only Ascomycetes, but one of the Basidiomycetes also occurs) and a single-celled or thread-like algal, intimately connected, and with a compound thallus, technically called a con

Lichfield

sortium. The green plant absorbs from the air carbon dioxide which under the influence of light is broken up, and the resulting starch grains are incorporated by the threads of the mycelium of the enclosing fungus, which in turn supplies the algal cells with water. The function of the algal partner is vegetative, the apothecia or fructifications being produced by the fungus. Theoretically lichens should be referred to the groups to which the respective partners belong; but in practice it has been found more convenient to treat them as a separate class, with two subclasses (Ascolichenes and Hymenolichenes) according to the systematic position of their constituent fungi. In the first subclass these are all ascomycetous, producing spores in little transparent sacs; in the second subclass, with but a single genus (Cora, which is tropical), the fungus is a basidiomycete, in which the spores are developed on a club-like support.

Lichfield, munic. bor., co. in itself, and city, in Staffordshire, England, 16 m. s.E. of Stafford. The cathedral, commenced in the 12th century and completed in the 15th, is one of the most beautiful in England, its most striking feature being the three graceful spires. The church of St. Chad, of the time of Henry VII., is near the site of the hermit's cell (7th century). Dr. Samuel Johnson was a native. Brewing is carried on. Pop. (1901) 7,902.

Lichtenberg, suburb of Berlin. Pop. (1900) 43,372.

Lichtenberg, GEORGE CHRISTOPH (1742-99), German philosopher and satirist, born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt; was appointed professor at Göttingen (1769). He was distinguished for his philosophical essays, but still more for his witty burlesques of the inflated style of Lavater and others. His Gesammelte Schriften appeared in 14 vols. (1844-53), Brieje in 1901, and Aphorismen in 1902. See Grisebach's Gedanken und Maximen aus Lichtenberg's Schriften, with Life (1871).

Lichtenburg, tn., cap. Lichtenburg dist., Transvaal Colony, British S. Africa, 35 m. s. of Zeerust. Pop. 700.

Licinius, GAIUS LICINIUS CALVUS, surnamed 'Stolo,' was famous in early Roman history as the statesman who practically ended the long struggle between the patricians and plebeians. He was consul in 364 and in 361 B.C.

Licinius, whose full name was PUBLIUS FLAVIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS LICINIANUS LICINIUS, was emperor of Rome (307-324 A.D.). In 313 he conquered Maximinus, and secured undisputed sway over

[merged small][merged small][subsumed][subsumed][subsumed][merged small][merged small][graphic]

Types of Lichens.

1. Rocella tinctoria: a, natural size; b, portion magnifled. 2. Cladonia rangiferina; a, natural size; b, portion magnified. 3. Cora pavonia: a, natural size; b, portion magnifled. 4. Physcia parietina a, natural size; b, portion magnifled. 5. Cladonia pyscidata, natural size. 6. Microscopic details of a fichen, transverse section: f, fungoid portion; al, algal portion; ft, fruit.

peace, in 323, when two great defeats at Adrianople and Chalcedon placed him at the mercy of Constantine, who put him to death.

Lick, JAMES (1796-1876), American philanthropist, was born in Fredericksburg, Pa., and for some years engaged in the manufacture of musical instru

a California school of the mechanical arts and $700,000 for the famous observatory and telescope erected on Mount Hamilton, fifty miles south of San Francisco, under the principal pier of which the remains of the donor were placed in 1887.

Licking River, Kentucky, a 1. bk. trib. of the Ohio. It rises in

Lick Observatory

Magoffin co., in the E. part of the state and flows N.W. to its confluence with the Ohio at Cincinnati. Its length is about 220 m.

Lick Observatory, an astronomical establishment founded by James Lick of San Francisco (1796-1876) at a cost of $700,000. He chose a site on the summit of Mt. Hamilton, California, at an altitude of 4,280 ft., and provided in his will for the erection there of the most powerful telescope in the world. The instrument is a 36-inch refractor by Alvan Clark and had no rival for a number of years until surpassed by that of the Yerkes observatory of the University of Chicago. The observatory always has an active

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pharmacy, chiefly as a sweet demulcent.

Lictors, the name of the attendants of the magistrates in ancient Rome, their duties being to escort them, to demand due respect for them from passersby, to execute their orders, and, in particular, to inflict punishments.

Licuala, a genus of dwarf tropical palms, with terminal, fan-shaped leaves and prickly stalks. Among the species are L. grandis, a native of New Britain; L. Rumphii, from Borneo; L. elegans, from Sumatra; and L. spinosa, from the Indian archipelago.

Liddell, HENRY GEORGE (1811

Lido

ford movement; but he considered that the action of the extreme ritualists imperilled its progress. In 1882 he resigned his professorship, and later he travelled in Egypt and Palestine, and visited Döllinger at Munich. He wrote several volumes of Sermons, and A Life of E. B. Pusey, completed by Johnston and Wilson (1893-7). See Donaldson's Five Great Oxford Leaders (1900), and Russell's H. P. Liddon (1903).

Lidford Law, an old English proverbial expression, meaning to hang a man first and try him afterward. It is said to have arisen from the extremely summary procedure of a court held

[graphic]

force of observers by whom many important discoveries have been made. Besides its great telescope it possesses many other instruments, especially those used for stellar photography. The body of James Lick lies beneath the dome.

Licorice, the root or underground stem of the plant Glycyr rhiza glabra. As it occurs in commerce the root is usually in cylindrical-branched piecestough and brown in color. It is sweet and mucilaginous to the taste. The sweet taste is due to a non-fermentable substance called glycyrrhizine. The extract obtained by macerating licorice root in water, and subsequently evaporating to a suitable consistency, is used in

Lick Observatory.

98), English classical scholar, was headmaster of Westminster school (1846-55), dean of Christ church, Oxford (1855-91), and vice-chancellor (1870-4). He is best known as the author, with Dean Scott, of the standard Greek Lexicon (1843; 8th ed. 1897). He also wrote a History of Rome (1855).

Liddon, HENRY PARRY (182990), English divine, who, as vice-principal of Cuddesdon College (1854), vice-principal of St. Edmund's Hall, Oxford (1859), Ireland professor of exegesis (1870), a select preacher at Oxford, and canon of St. Paul's (1872-99), impressed his remarkable personality on the age. The intimate friend of Pusey, he lived in close sympathy with the Ox

in the town of Lidford in Devonshire. The proverb ran,

First hang and draw,

Then hear the cause by Lidford law.'

Lidner, BENGT (1757-93), Swedish poet, born at Götborg, who in his seventeenth year distinguished himself at the University of Lund by his poetical gifts and by his notoriously irregular life. Expelled from Lund, he completed his studies at Greifswald and Rostock; was befriended by Gustavus III., who sent him as secretary to the Swedish minister at Paris. See his Samlade Arbeten (1877).

Lido, chain of sandy islets, Italy, between rivers Brenta and Piave, and separating the lagoons of Venice from the Adriatic Sea.

Lie

There are several forts on them. Since 1894 the chief sea entrance to Venice has been by the Lido channel.

Lie, JONAS LAURITS IDEMIL (1833), Norwegian novelist, born at Ecker, near Drammen. He first became popular when he published a volume of poems (1866); but his real domain is the novel. Beginning with Den Fremsynte (1870), a tale of the Finmark peasantry, he followed this up with a whole series of excellent romances, which include Tremasteren Fremtid (1873; Eng. trans. The Barque 'Future,' 1879); Lodsen og hans Hustru (1874; Eng. trans. The Pilot and his Wife, 1879); Livsslaven (1883; Eng. trans. One of Life's Slaves, 1895), one of his most powerfuĺ stories; Kommandorens Döttre (1886; Eng. trans. 1892); and Onde Magter (1890). Lie's novels are realistic, his psychology is keen and delicate, his characterizations are vivid and convincing, and his tone is always noble, even when pessimistic. See Jæger's Illust. Norsk Liter. (1892).

Lie, MARIUS SEPHUS (1842-99), Norwegian mathematician and linguist, born at Nordfjord. The chair of mathematics at Christiania was founded for him (1872); there he remained till appointed professor of geometry at Leipzig (1886). He published Theorie der Transformationsgruppen (188893), and Vorlesungen über Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten Infinitesimalen Transformationen (1891). For a biography, see Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (1899).

Lieben, tn., Bohemia, Austria, on the riv. Moldau, N.E. suburb of Prague. Manufactures chemicals, machinery, sugar, and beer. Pop. (1900) 21,300.

Lieber, FRANCIS (1800-72), German-American publicist, born in Berlin, March 18, 1800. He at first studied medicine, but in 1815 entered the Prussian army, and took part in the battles of Ligny and Waterloo, and was seriously wounded in the assault on Namur. Within the next few years he had begun to sympathize with republican ideas of government, and in 1819 he was imprisoned on the charge of plotting against the government. Having been denied the right to continue his studies in Prussian institutions, he pleted his education at Jena, where he took his degree in 1820, but here again his liberal ideas got him into trouble with the government, and he went to Halle, only to have the same experiences. In 1821 he took part in the Greek revolution, and two years afterward published his Journal in Greece. In 1822-23, at Rome, he became associated with Niebuhr, and then, having received assur

com

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ances that he would not be molested, returned to Halle (1824), only to be again imprisoned because of his radical views. While in prison he wrote several poems, which he called Wein-und WonneLieder, and which were afterward published under the pseudonym, Franz Arnold (1824). Continued persecutions caused him to leave his native country in 1825, and to go to London, whence, two years afterward, he came to the U. S. For the next five years he lived in Boston, where he was engaged in editing the Encyclopædia Americana (1829-33), and in lecturing. In 1832-34 he had a part in formulating the educational system for Girard College, Philadelphia, and in 1835 he became professor of history and political economy at the University of South Carolina, where he was established until 1856, when he accepted the corColumbia responding chair at College, New York. In 1860 he also took the chair of political science at Columbia, and this professorship he held during the remainder of his life. While at the South Carolina college he wrote the most important of his books, as follows: A Manual of Political Ethics (1838), Legal and Political Hermeneutics (1839), and Civil Liberty and Self-Government (1852). His Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field (1863), known as 'General Order No. 100, prepared at the request of the War Department, formulates the customs of civilized warfare, and is still considered authoritative. He died in New York, Sept. 2, 1872. His miscellaneous writings, collected by Gilman, were published in 1881, and Thomas S. Perry published his Life and Letters (1882).

Lieber, GUIDO NORMAN (1837), American judge advocate of the United States army and writer on military jurisprudence, the son of Francis Lieber, was born at Columbia, S. C., and graduated (1856) at South Carolina College. He studied law at Harvard, and at the outbreak of the Civil War entered the 11th U. S. Infantry as 1st lieutenant. He was made major and judge advocate, 1862, and was afterward connected with the bureau of military justice, with the exception of four years' service as professor of law at West Point. He was judge advocate general of the U. S. army from 1895 until his retirement in 1901. Author of The Use of the Army in Aid of the Civil Power (1898) and Remarks on the Army Regulations (1898).

Liebermann, MAX (1849), German painter, born in Berlin. He went to Barbizon (1874), and came under the influence of Mil

Liebknecht

let, Corot, and Daubigny, the result being seen in such paintings as Laborers in a Turnip Field. One of his best pictures is The Flax Spinners, în the Berlin National Gallery.

Liebig, JUSTUS, FREIHERR VON (1803-73), German chemist, was born at Darmstadt, and after a not very successful school career, was apprenticed to an apothecary, previous to entering the University of Bonn, and later Erlangen. After taking his degree (1822) he went to Paris, and worked with Gay-Lussac until appointed professor of chemistry in Giessen (1824). In 1852 he was called to Munich, where he remained till his death. Liebig's work was principally on, though not confined to, organic chemistry; investigating, both alone and in conjunction with Wöhler, many compounds of which the constitution was of great theoretical importance-such as the fulminates, benzoic acid, amygdalin, and others; whilst he discovered chloral (1831) and chloroform (1832). He worked out also much of the chemistry of the life processes of animals and plants, and in this connection did good service in elucidating the chemical actions occurring in agriculture and cooking, and in inventing the extract of meat with which his name was connected (now known as 'Lemco'). In the course of his researches he developed the methods of organic manipulation and analysis, those in use to-day being much the same as he left them. It is as a teacher, however, that Liebig is perhaps most famous, founding much of that which is best in modern experimental methods of teaching chemistry, and stimulating by his inspiring influence and individual instruction a host of pupils who afterwards spread his clear and logical doctrines over the world. Besides his numerous monographs on scientific subjects, Liebig wrote Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikultur und Physiologie (1840), Die Naturgesetze des Feldbaues (1842), and Chemische Briefe (1844); took a part in the production of a dictionary of chemistry; founded the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie (1832); and edited the Jahresbericht der Chemie. See Hofmann's The Lifework of Liebig (1876), and Shenstone's Justus von Liebig (1895).

Liebknecht, WILHELM (18261900), German socialist agitator and journalist, born at Giessen. Imprisoned for his share in the Baden rebellion, he escaped in 1849 to England. Amnestied in 1862, he entered the N. German Parliament (1867). He founded, with Bebel, the Demokratisches Wochenblatt; which led to the

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