should be well connected to the earth. This is often advocated in the U. S., but in England Sir Oliver Lodge and Mr. Killingworth Hedges recommend that, while carefully connecting such masses of metal and pipes to the earth, they should not be connected to the conductors proper, and the latter should be kept away from them. This is chiefly on account of the uncertainty of the earth connection of pipes, and the liability of bad metallic contact of the sections. The general principle is to surround the building and cover the roof with a network of conductors, and to give the lightning many and easy paths to earth. The continuity of the conductors and the efficient con

Lightning Arresters. (See also TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, and LIGHTNING.) A system for transmitting power by an electric current consists of a dynamo at one end of the line, and usually motors or transformers at the other. Through neither can a lightning flash pass, and a safe path to earth must be provided. One end of a thick wire or rod is connected to the earth, and the other end brought close to the line, with a gap so narrow that the lightning will easily jump across, though the smaller electrical pressure of the system is unable to do so. But often in these systems the other pole of the dynamo is joined to earth, and the current in the line,

Lights

though unable to jump the gap by itself, can follow in the path of the lightning, since the great heat of the flash causes the air to become a conductor of electricity, and the following current keeps up the heat. Therefore means are employed to stop the electric flame as soon as the almost instantaneous lightning flash has passed. The two sides of the gap are continued upward as outwardly curving horns up which the flame is driven by the rising of the heated air, assisted by the magnetic repulsion of the arc, due to the current in the wires and horizontal parts of the horns. An electro-magnet placed under the gap and actuated by the current hastens this action. If the dynamo current attempts to follow by the arc to earth, the current must pass through the coil, thus magnetizing the core and blowing out the arc. The coil also acts as a choking coil, to prevent the lightning flash passing to the dynamo, thus forcing the flash to travel by the spark gap to earth.

In another type of arrester the electro-magnet pulls away one of the poles, thus lengthening the gap until the arc breaks, this is found very useful in large installations.

A third type contains a very large number of narrow gaps, produced by placing a pile of discs of metal and mica alternately. The top disc is connected to line, and the bottom disc to earth. The lightning easily jumps the narrow gaps, but the cooling effect of the mass of metal prevents the dynamo current from maintaining the arc. The metal used for the discs is usually zinc, as the arc is more easily extinguished between poles of zinc than of other metals, due probably to the rapid oxidation of the zinc.

Lights, in public worship, were used in the Jewish tabernacle (Exod. 25:31 ff.) and in the Temple (I Kings 7:49). There is no direct evidence that they were retained as a part of the Christian ceremonial during the first three centuries. Some, however, consider that the 'many lights' at Troas, and the candlesticks' and lamps before the throne, mentioned in Rev. 1:12 and 4:5 indicate their early adoption in churches. In the fourth and following centuries they were almost universal (Smith's Dict. of Christian Antiquities, ii. 993-8). St. Jerome alludes to the use of lights at the reading of the gospel as symbolic of the light of the Word of God (Ep. adv. Vigilant, iii.). The Roman Catholic and Eastern Churches still retain them;. Protestant Churches generally gave them up at the time of the Reformation.

Lightship

In England they were discontinued in the Prayer Book of 1549, and it is a moot point whether they are now permitted by the Ornaments Rubric.' Archbishop Benson pronounced for the legality of their use on condition that they are lighted before the commencement of the service, and are extinguished after the service is concluded (Read and Others v. The Lord Bishop of Lincoln, Judgment, pp. 65-89). See Schmid's Der christliche Alter (1871).

Lightship, a vessel moored out at sea with a light to mark a bank, shoal, or place dangerous to mariners. The first British lightship was fitted out by Robert Hamblin in 1731 to mark the Nore Sand; and David Avery caused one to be placed to mark the Dudgeon Shoal, Norfolk (1736). Since that date lightships have become very common. The crews usually serve for a month or six weeks, and after a spell of leave return for another similar period.

The most notable American lightships are on Nantucket Shoals and Hatteras Shoals. Like the other modern lightships for offshore stations, they are screw steamers, built for service as lightships, but able to make a fair rate of speed if they break adrift from their moorings. See LIGHTHOUSE.

year,

Light-Year, the distance traversed by light in one equivalent to nearly six billion miles, is the unit adopted for the measurement of sidereal space.

Ligne, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), Austrian soldier, diplomat, and author, born at Brussels. He served with distinction through the Seven Years' war, and commanded the Austrian artillery at the siege of Belgrade (1789). During the reign of Joseph II. he held high diplomatic posts, was a favorite of Marie Theresa and of Catherine of Russia, and included Rousseau, Voltaire, Frederick the Great, Wieland, Schlegel, and Goethe among his friends. His Mélanges were published in thirty-four volumes (1790-1811); Euvres Posthumes (1817); Vie du Prince Eugène (1809). His memoirs and letters, collected by Mme. de Staël (1809), are of historic importance. See Lives by Thürheim (1876) and Du Bled (1890).

Lignin, or woody fibre, is the product into which the cellulose first formed in a plant is converted, by incrustation with other compounds, probably belonging to the aromatic series, when changed into wood in the process of lignification. This causes a change of composition from that shown by the formula (C6H10O5)n to

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that approximately expressed by C12H1809; and though in different woods the product differs considerably in physical structure, its composition and behavior toward reagents present very similar features in all.

Lignite, or 'brown coal,' is mostly light, friable, and porous, showing its vegetable origin by the retention of the woody structure, or sometimes also of the shapes of leaves, stems, and pieces of bark. In burning lignites give out much smoke, comparatively little heat, and a somewhat unpleasant odor. Chemically they represent an intermediate stage between wood and coal. Nearly all lignites are of recent geological age as compared with coals, though they may be converted

Liguori

officinale, the duramen or heartwood of which is of a dark greenish color, and very hard, heavy, and cross-grained-extensively used for machinery, rollers, pestles, ships' blocks, etc. It contains a quantity of the resin of guaiacum, by virtue of which it is much employed in pharmacy. (See GUAIACUM.) The Lignum vitæ of New Zealand is the aki, a giant climber, Metrosideros buxifolia, order Myrtaceæ.

Ligny, vil., prov. Namur, Belgium, 27 m. S.S.E. of Brussels. Here the Prussians were defeated by Napoleon two days before the battle of Waterloo (1815). Pop. (1900) 1,831.

Ligonier, city, Noble co., Ind., 15 m. S.E. of Goshen, on the Elkhart R., and on the Lake Shore

into coal by the heat of igneous masses, or by pressure and earth movement. Lignites are chiefly found in formations of Tertiary age particularly in France, Germany, Austria and in the western United States. See COAL.

Lignum Rhodii, the wood of Convolvulus scoparius and C. Floridus, shrubby species of bindweed, natives of the Canaries. The wood is often known as rosewood by distillers of essential oils, and the oil distilled therefrom is sometimes used to dilute attar of roses, whose fragrance it distantly resembles. The term is also applied to the wood of Amyris balsamifera, a Jamaican tree, and to the Asiatic Liquidamber orientale.

Lignum Vitæ, the wood of a West Indian tree, Guaiacum

and Michigan Southern R. R. Its principal manufactures are carriages, lumber products and flour. Pop. (1900) 2,231.

Ligonyi. See ELGON.

Ligor (Siam. Lakhon), chief Siamese prov. in the N.E. of the isthmus of Kra, in the Malay Peninsula; capital is Liger, on N. side of Lakhon Bight. Tin-mining is the main industry of the province. Pop. Ligor circle (1901), 572,915, 75 per cent. Siamese?

Ligulate, a term used to describe the 'strap-shaped' florets of certain composite plants, when the corolla tube ends in a straplike process on one side, as in the dandelion and chrysanthemum.

Liguori, ALFONSO MARIA DI, SAINT (1696-1787), a Neapolitan of good family, one of the greatest Roman Catholic writers of the

try it justifies. He was canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and for his scholarly exposition of the doctrines of the immaculate conception and infallibility Pius IX. named him a doctor of the church (1871). His day is August 2. His works, the most important of which is his Theologia Moralis, were published in forty-two volumes (1842-7), and his letters in three volumes (1893-94); many of them have been translated into various languages. See Lives by Tannoja (1848-9), Gisler (1887), Dilgskron (1887), and Bathe (1900). See also REDEMPTORISTS,

Liguria, div. of ancient Italy. bounded on the w. by the river Varus and the Maritime Alps, on the E. by the river Macra, separating it from Etruria, and on the N. by the Po. Its inhabitantscalled by the Greeks Ligyes, by the Romans Ligures-were subdued by the latter about 150 B.C.

Ligurian Republic, the name given to the republic of Genoa in 1797 by Napoleon. Up to 1802 it was ruled by the Directory. In 1805 it was incorporated with the French empire.

Ligustrum, a genus of plants, order Oleaceæ, characterized by opposite, entire leaves, and by terminal panicles of funnel-shaped flowers, followed by two-celled berries. L. vulgare is the common European privet. Other species include L. compactum, the fragrant-flowered evergreen; L. japonicum, with its varieties; the

Chinese and the Japanese. Lihsi stoutly resisted the encroachments of China and her efforts to prevent him sending ambassadors to other courts. He was proclaimed emperor (1897). The country has been practically under the control of Japan since the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, and by the treaty of Portsmouth, U.S.A. (1905), Russia recognized Japan's exclusive supremacy there.

Li Hung Chang (1823-1901), Chinese statesman, who first became known to Europeans through his association with Gordon in the suppression of the Taiping rebellion (1863). Li Hung Chang was then taotai (governor) of Kiang-su and generalissimo of the Chinese troops. He had previously occupied the position of financial commissioner at Su-chau (Soo-chow), to which he was appointed in 1848, a year after he had matriculated at the Hamlin College in Peking. In 1865 he was appointed viceroy of Nanking, and two years later was transferred to the more lucrative post of the viceroyalty of Canton. He subsequently became the viceroy of Tien-tsin, and held this position till his death, also filling in the course of his career other high imperial offices. During the war with Japan (1894) he was for some time commander-inchief of the Chinese forces, and on its conclusion negotiated the treaty of peace with the Mikado

Lilac

(1895). He visited the principal nations of Europe in 1896, and also made a tour of the U. S., and was everywhere received with cordiality. In 1900 he was appointed by the dowager-empress of China to negotiate with the allies for the restoration of peace after the 'Boxer' massacres and the occupation of Peking by the powers. Judged by a Chinese standard, Li Hung Chang was enlightened and progressive. He organized what fleet the country boasted of at the time of the war with Japan, started native trading companies, and did something towards opening up China's mineral resources by the support he gave to the construction of railways. See Douglas's Li Hung-chang (1895).

Liimfjord, or LIMFJORD, arm of the sea, 85 m. long, between the North Sea and the Kattegat, bisecting N. Jutland. In the wider part of it, the so-called 'Broads,' lie the islands of Engholm, Gjöl, and Oland. There is steamboat communication between the numerous small towns on its banks. Oyster beds have been laid down in the w. portion of the Liimfjord, especially around Skruer.

Likin, or LEKIN, a Chinese provincial transit duty. For foreign goods, formerly subject to likin at many inland stations, two and a half per cent. may now be paid, instead of the custom-house duties.

Lilac, or PIPE TREE, a name

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris).

1, Flower Section.

given to shrubs belonging to the genus Syringa, order Oleaceæ. They are natives of temperate Europe and Asia, and are among

Lilburne

the most valuable of our hardy cultivated shrubs. The flowers are small, with bell-shaped calyces and tubular corollas, and are borne in great panicles. Many of the species and varieties possess a delicate and most sweet fragrance. The common lilac, S. vulgaris, is perhaps the species most frequently seen, and of it there are violet, white, blue, and rose colored varieties. S. chinensis is the Rouen lilac, of rather smaller growth than S. vulgaris, with a strong odor; S. japonica bears dense thyrses of creamy flowers during summer; S. Josikaa is a pretty species, but its flowers are without scent; S. persica is the smallest of the lilacs, and of it there are several varieties cultivated in gardens. S. amurensis has an odor like privet, and yellowish-white flow

ers.

Lilburne, JOHN (1614-57), English agitator, pamphleteer, and leader of the 'Levellers,' a party opposed to aristocratic power in the government. He was repeatedly whipped, pilloried, and imprisoned by the Star Chamber, and afterward by Cromwell, for his seditious pamphlets. subsequently became a Quaker. See LEVELLERS.

He

Liliaceæ, a natural order of plants, mostly herbaceous, with bulbous roots, of which a very large proportion are garden plants, valued either for the beauty of their flowers or for the flavor of their bulbs or shoots. The flowers are generally devoid of sepals, the corolla consisting of six petals. There are stamens inserted on the petals, a three-celled superior ovary, and a single style. Among the genera are Fritillaria, Lilium, Erythronium, Yucca, Allium, Calochortus, and Hemerocallis. The onion, leek, garlic, and chive are members of this order.

six

Liliencron, DETLEV, BARON VON (1844), German novelist and poet, was born in Kiel. Entering the Prussian army, he served in the campaigns of 1866 and 187071; spent some time in travel in the U. S. (of which country his mother was a native), and later was employed by the German government until 1887, since when he has devoted himself to literature. Several of his novels, which include Breide Hummelsbüttel (1886), Der Mäcon (1890), and Kriegsnovellen (1896), have gained a wide popularity; but his best work appears in his lyrics, Adjutantenritte (1884); Gedichte (1889); Nebel und Sonne (1900).

Liliencron, ROCHUS, BARON (1820), German author, born at Plön, Holstein. After holding various government appointments, he became professor of

327

German language and literature at Jena (1852). He published Lieder und Sprüche aus der letzten Zeit des Minnesangs (1854), and Historische Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13-16 Jahrhun

dert (1865-9). He was appointed editor of the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie by the Historical Commission of Munich in 1870.

Lilith, a female demon of the night of Hebrew folklore, supposed to be hostile to children, and to adults sleeping alone. The name appears but once in Scripture, and is translated 'screech owl' (Isa. 34: 14; A.V. margin and R.V. 'night-monster'); it is, however, of frequent occurrence in rabbinical literature, where Lilith is regarded as Adam's first wife. (See ADAM.) The word is doubtless connected with the Hebrew layil, 'night,' and the superstition was probably borrowed from the Babylonians. See W. R. Smith's Religion of the Semites (1894), and Sayce's Hibbert Lectures (1887).

Liliuokalani (b. 1838), queen of the Hawaiian Is., wife of John O. Dominis, a native of the U. S., succeeded her brother, Kalakaua (1891). In 1893, two years after the death of her husband, her treatment of the non-naturalized whites excited an uprising against her. The queen was deposed and a republic proclaimed (1894). In 1896 she visited the U. S., since which time she has lived in Honolulu. In 1898 the islands were formally annexed to the United States.

Lille, walled tn. and first-class fortress near the Belgian frontier, dep. Nord, France, 66 m. S.E. of Calais. It is situated in a level district on the Deule, of great fertility, highly cultivated, and yielding large quantities of sugar beet. It is one of the chief industrial towns of France, and is specially noted for its textile factories, in which linens, cottons, velvets, ribbons, and woollen goods are produced. There are also sugar, soap, and tobacco factories, dye works, chemical works, and distilleries; large bleach fields are found in the outskirts. Among its buildings may be noted the citadel (designed by Vauban), in the N.W., the church of Notre Dame de la Treille, the town hall, the bourse, and the Palais des Beaux Arts, which contains exceptionally rich art collections. Lille was taken by the Duke of Marlborough (1708). In 1792 it successfully withstood a terrible bombardment by the Austrians. Pop. (1901) 215,431.

Lillibullero, a scurrilous revoluntary ballad attacking the Roman Catholics, said to have been written by Lord Wharton (1686), and to have been set to music by Purcell. It takes its

Lilliput, an imaginary country on the shore of which Gulliver, the hero of Dean Swift's Gulli ver's Travels, was wrecked. The inhabitants were so diminutivethe height of a finger's lengththat they regarded Gulliver as a monstrous giant.

Lillo, GEORGE (1693-1739), English dramatist, born in Moorfields. His play George Barnwell (1731) popularized the 'domestic drama' in England, and has been frequently revived. The best of his other plays are Fatal Curiosity (1736) and Arden of Feversham (1736).

Lilly, WILLIAM (1602-81), English astrologer and prophet, born in Leicestershire. He issued an annual almanac called Merlinus Anglicus, Junior (1644-81). The Christian Astrology (1647) was his most noted work. Butler satirized him in Hudibras (1636-78). See his autobiography (posthumously published 1715).

Liloán, pueb., ú, Philippines, 10 m. N.E. of Cebú, at the mouth of the Liloán R., on a bay on the E. coast. Pop. (1903) 10,024.

Lily (Lilium), a genus of hardy, half-hardy, and tender bulbous plants, of the order Liliaceæ. Most of the species have flowers of great beauty, and are therefore valued as garden or greenhouse plants. The flowers are borne either solitary at the top of the stems, or in a loose raceme. The perianth is usually more or less funnel-shaped, with free segments. Among the best-known and mostvalued species are L. tigrinum, the common tiger lily, a Chinese species, growing about three feet high, and bearing many-flowered racemes of spotted orange-red flowers in late summer; L. Washingtonia, the Californian lily, bearing racemes of mauve-tinted, white, trumpet-shaped flowers of a delicious fragrance in June. L. pyrenaicum bears yellow flowL. speciosum, from Japan, bears large, broad racemes of pink tinged and pink - spotted white flowers in summer. L. tenuifolium is a Siberian native, bearing long, scarlet, solitary flowers. L. pardalinum is a tall, fine Californian species, with purple-spotted orange flowers. L. martagon, the well-known Turk's cap lily, bears long, pyramidal racemes of dull purplish flowers with recurved perianths. L. davuricum bears scarlet flowers in July. L. longiflorum is a beautiful Japanese lily, bearing in summer very long, fragrant, white, infundibuliform flowers. L. Hansoni is also a Japanese

ers.