Architecture

with strange admixture of Byzantine, Saracen and Norman elements. The chief characteristic is the splendor of its mosaic decoration, the delicacy of its carvings and the occasional use of the pointed arch. The finest examples are in Sicily, among which the Cathedral of Monreale is preeminent.

GOTHIC. This term was applied by the Italians to the architecture preceding the Renaissance, in derision of its supposed barbaric character; wrongly so, since it was not German, but originated in France. The term 'Pointed Architecture' is also erroneous because the pointed arch is a mere incident of the style. Its forms were a development of the Romanesque, resulting from the concentration of strains incidental to the universal use of ribbed vaulting. The weight of the vaults was concentrated upon great piers assisted by balanced thrusts in the shape of flying buttresses. The result was a complete dissolution of the masses of the heavy walls, the place of which was occupied by beautiful windows rich in tracery. The pointed arch, which by its downward thrust admits of more lofty vaults, was generally introduced; and the semicircular apse of the Romanesque church was transformed into a radiating choir with a beautiful crown of chapels.

France. Gothic architecture originated in the Ile de France as the result of a combination of Northern and Southern influences. Its first example was the choir of the abbey church of St. Denis, near Paris (c. 1140). In the latter part of the 12th century arose a series of fine cathedrals, in which the new system prevailed; but whose massiveness shows the transition from the Romanesque: those of Laon, Bourges, and, finest of all, Notre Dame at Paris. The most perfect development was attained in the 13th century in such cathedrals as Rheims, Amiens, Chartres, Beauvais and Rouen. In these buildings the place of the walls is taken by magnificent stained glasses, and the façade and lateral portals are transformed into forests of statuary, all in perfect harmony with the upward striving of the Gothic. In the late or florid Gothic period (1375-1525), the design became lighter and even richer, the sculptural decoration increasingly realistic. Profuse decoration and cleverness of technical execution replaced dignity of design, finally degenerating into the unrestrained extravagances of the Flamboyant style. Among the chief churches of this period are St. Ouen and St. Malcou at Rouen, St. Jacques at Dieppe, and St. Wulfrand at Abbeville.

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England.-Although Gothic architecture was introduced from France into England, it soon experienced in that country a peculiarly national development. It retained the long and narrow naves of the Norman period and the straight determination of the choir which is usually adorned with a beautiful window. Small use is made of buttresses and the early Gothic period, corresponding roughly with the 13th century, is known in England as the Early English or Lancet style, so called from the shape of the windows, usually arranged in groups of three. The first example (1174) of the Gothic style in England was the choir of Canterbury. Of the churches of the 13th century Westminster Abbey shows French influence, but the Cathedrals of Lincoln and Salisbury are thoroughly English; other remarkable examples are Wells and Litchfield. The Decorative or Geometric style (1280-1380) corresponding roughly with the High Gothic in France, is characterized by decorative richness and a lighter construction, among the finest exam

Architecture

at Cambridge and the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. While the sides and east ends of the English Cathedral were often of a beautiful design, the façades were not always so. The most successful features of English exteriors were the lofty and massive central towers.

Spain. The Gothic style was transplanted into Spain from France during the 13th century. The Cathedral of Toledo is modelled after Notre Dame of Paris, and those of Leon, Valencia and Barcelona also show French influence, while that of Burgos, in its spires at least, resembles German work. The largest of the Spanish cathedrals, which are themselves more extensive than other European churches, is that of Seville, begun in 1401. The later Gothic in Spain is characterized by overloaded decoration, which may be attributed to Moorish tendencies. The Gothic style entered Portugal at a relatively late period and is characterized by the same exaggerated decoration as in Spain.

Germany.-Gothic architecture

ples being the Cathedrals of Exeter, Winchester, York, and Carlisle, and a series of abbeys. like Melrose. The Perpendicular, so called because of its predominantly vertical character, corresponds with the late Gothic period elsewhere, and extends well into the 16th century, when it is called the Tudor style. It is characterized by the use of complicated systems of vaulting, especially of fan vaulting. The college buildings of the English universities are largely built in this style; and among its principal examples are St. George's Chapel, Windsor, King's College Chapel

was introduced into Germany at a later period than elsewhere, owing to the tenacity with which the Germans clung to the Romanesque. The most important development took place in the Rhinelands, under direct French influence; the chief examples being the great cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne and Freiburg, all begun shortly before the middle of the 13th century. An especial German development was the Hall churches, in which the aisles are in equal height with the nave (St. Elizabeth at Marburg). The churches at Nuremberg and the minster of Ulm are

Architecture

good examples of the late Gothic period in Germany (1350-1530).

Italy.-The Italian Gothic was decorative rather than constructive. The pervading tendency was horizontal rather than vertícal; the nave only high enough to admit sufficient light; while the façade was not a constructive part of the church but free to take any form, and the towers were built apart from the church. The mendicant orders play an important part in its introduction. Among the principal examples are the Cathedral of Milan, begun in 1386, a compromise of Italian and Northern methods; the cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto, begun in 1245 and 1290 respectively, the most beautiful and consistent examples of the Tuscan Gothic; and the Cathedral of Florence, begun in 1232 after the plans cf Arnolfo di Cambio and continued throughout the 14th century.

Secular Architecture. Especially during the later Gothic period, coincident with the highest development of mediæval municipalities, there was an important manifestation of secular architecture in the town halls of Northern France, Germany, and especially in the Netherlands and Italy. From this period date the municipal palaces of Florence, Siena, the ducal palace and many of the private mansions of Venice. For the development of private dwellings and castles during the Romanesque and Gothic period see HOUSE AND CASTLE.

RENAISSANCE.-As a result of the revival of antique studies in general and the study of Roman ruins in especial, an architecture originated which was an adaptation of classic forms to architectural needs of the day. Unlike previous architectural developments, it was a personal rather than a national style, and its works were those of indi iduals. Its principal divisions are the Early or Free Renaissance (14201500), the High or Classical (15001575), and the Declining Renaissance or Baroque (1575-1780).

Italy. The Renaissance began in Florence and its early works were by Florentine architects. The founder of the style was Brunellesco who, after long studies at Rome, produced in his cupola of the Cathedral of Florence (142064) the first monument of the new style. In his churches (Santo Spirito, San Lorenzo), as well as in his palaces, of which the finest example is the Pitti, he adopted rather than imitated the features of Roman buildings; as did also his principal pupil Michelozzo (Palazzo Riccardi). Roman forms were more closely imitated by Alberti, the great theorist of the Early Renaissance. Their successors carried the style

Architecture

mal classicism began with stricter imitation of Roman models. The greatest representatives were Vignola, the author of the celebrated treatise on architecture, and Palladio (Basilica of Vincenza and San Giorgio Maggiore at Venice). The Baroque or Declining Renaissance was a reaction against classical severity, it cmphasized the picturesque rather than the monumental, and was characterized by exaggerated forms and constructions and a general disregard for architectural propriety. Its greatest representatives were Maderna, Bernini and Borromini.

France. The introduction of the Renaissance into France was greatly promoted by the close political relations with Italy in the matter 15th and early 16th centurics. Its chief result during the 16th century was the transformation of the medieval castle into a su perb modern residence, with the picturesque retention of such medieval details as bastions, dormer windows, towers and spiral staircases. In the course of the century it became increasingly classic, and in such works as Pierre Lescot's court of the Louvre (1546) the medieval elements are practically eliminated. It found its chief expression in the magnificent series of châteaux along the Loire and elsewhere. The 16th century saw the development of what may be called the classic period of French architecture, which found its chief expression in the works executed during the reign of Louis XIV., like the Palace of Versailles, the Invalides, and especially in the colonnade of the Louvre. While in the exteriors strict classic forms were preserved, the interior decoration was elaborate, though tasteful in comparison with similar efforts elsewhere. In the declining or Rococo period (1715-74) capricious and exuberant details ran riot with constructive design.

The

Germany.-Owing to the rcligious wars and other conditions inimical to art, the Renaissance did not enter Germany until the middle of the 16th century. Its adoption was attended with the preservation of many mediaval features, a great mass of picturesque detail being retained. most important monuments are the castles and town halls; such as the castle of Heidelberg (the Otto Heinrichsbau, 1554, and the Friedrichsbau, 1601), and the town halls of Augsburg, Rothenburg and Bremen. During the later 17th century the Baroque was introduced from Italy, and a large number of palaces were built in this style.

England. - The Renaissance was introduced into England during the reign of Elizabeth (1558

troduce a purer, classic style. He was a very successful imitator of Palladio, and in such works as the Banqueting Hall of Whitehall showed the highest ability. His style was further developed by his greatest successor in the later 17th century, Sir Christopher Wren, who in St. Paul's Cathedral designed a model for English church buildings. The principal architects of the early 18th century were Van Brugh, whose style was heavy and massive (Blenheim Palace), and Gibbs. Sir William Chambers was the most prominent architect of the later 18th century (Somerset House).

Spain. The Renaissance was not introduced into Spain until about 1500, and from that date until the middle of the century a style of rich surface decoration called the Plateresque style was common. About 1550 a pure classic style was adopted by Berruguete and Herrera (Cathedral of Valladolid and the Escorial). About the middle of the 17th century this was succeeded by the Churrigueresque, named after an architect, in which all structural principles were lost sight of in an excess of ornamentation.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.What may be called modern architecture was introduced by the so-called Classic Revival, a reaction against the extravagances of

models were almost exclusively followed, as e.g. in all the great constructions of Napoleon, like the Arc de Triomphe and the Madeleine. In Great Britain the modified Palladian style continued till the revival based upon Greek models, which had become known through the studies of Stuart and Revett in Attica. Among its many monuments are the British Museum, the High School at Edinburgh, and St. George's Hall at Liverpool. In Germany the researches of Winckelmann and others bore fruit in such works as the Old Museum at Berlin by Schinkel, the Walhalla near Ratisbon by von Klenze, the Glyptothek at Munich, and the Parliament House at Vienna by Hansen. The buildings of Athens are in this style and many of those in Russia. But notwithstanding the taste and excellent plans of the architects, the strict Greek forms were found too constrained for the needs of modern life.

The Gothic Revival.-The reaction against the imitation of classic forms took the form of a revival of the medieval architecture, especially of the Gothic style. It appeared earliest in England under the leadership of Pugin and others, and acquired real architectural importance in the so-called Victorian Gothic