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Local Government

alogies in cities, the recent movement for commission government in cities began in Galveston (Texas), as an emergency measure following the hurricane and flood of 1900. Its success there led to its adoption in other Texas cities; and from there the movement has spread, combining with it other features than those in the original Galveston plan. An Iowa law, adopted first in Des Moines, forms the basis for most of the later laws. This law, in addition to providing for a small commission, elected at large, to act collectively in general matters, and with the separate members each in charge of one branch of municipal government, also provides definitely for non-partisan elections following an open direct primary, for the 'Recall' of municipal officials by the voters, for the Initiative and Referendum, and for some features of the merit system in appointments. Laws more or less similar to that of Iowa have been passed in Kansas, Illinois, and other States, and adopted by a large number of cities; while other cities have adopted the general features of this system in whole or in part. This movement has been most notable in the Middle West; but has also been followed to some extent in Massachusetts and other parts of the United States.

Thus far, the commission-governed cities appear to show a distinct gain in efficiency and business management of municipal affairs. At the same time, may be noted that it has been adopted by cities previously organized under the second type described above, where other recent improvements in municipal government had not been introduced. Criticism is also made that the commission plan carries concentration too far in combining the powers of appropriation and taxation with the duties of spending public funds.

Another important movement for the betterment of municipal government is for the elimination of 'spoils' politics in the municipal service by the introduction of the merit system, based on open competitive examinations. This has been established for subordinate positions in the cities of Massachusetts and New York State, and by a good number of other cities, such as Chicago, Denver, and Kansas City; and partially in still others. The Boston Charter of 1909 goes a step further in providing that the mayor's appointments of heads of departments must be approved by the State civil service commission as competent persons for the offices. the

Municipal functions in United States generally include the local police, fire brigade, and sanitary and building regulation, street improvements, and drainage. In the larger cities, and some small cities, poor relief and parks are also VOL. VII.-Jan. '11.

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municipal affairs; but the local management of schools is in most cases distinct from the city government. Municipal water works are common; and there are a considerable number of municipal electric light plants; but other municipal works operated on a commercial basis are rare. (See MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP.)

State Supervision. - Formerly, State control of local government in the United States was exercised entirely by legislative statutes enforced by the judicial courts. But with the increase in volume and extent of public business, this detailed legislative control has proved harassing both to the local communities and to the legislatures, and has often been subject to political abuses. In recent years there may be traced some tendencies toward administrative supervision of local authorities by State officials, and also the development of State administration in fields formerly left entirely to local action.

Every State has now a superintendent of public instruction or similar official, with some powers of inspection, advice, and supervision over the public elementary schools; and in New York, the State Commissioner of Education has important powers of control over local school administration. Higher education, in normal schools and universities, is furnished to a large extent in State institutions.

State institutions have also been established for the care of important groups of the defectives, dependents, and criminals-such as insane hospitals, children's institutions, industrial schools, reformatories, and penitentiaries. Local charitable and correctional institutions, such as country and city poorhouses and jails, are also visited and inspected, in many States, by State boards of charities.

State boards of health have been created in many States, for the investigation and control of larger sanitary problems; and these State boards advise local health officials, and in some cases have more positive powers.

Some State control over local finance administration has also developed. State tax commissions, with powers of supervision over the local assessment of property for taxation, have been established in a good number of the more important States-c.g., New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Washington; and State supervision of the financial accounts of local authorities has been introduced in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Wyoming, and to a smaller degree in other States.

GREAT BRITAIN.-During the nineteenth century, the local government of Great Britain and Ireland was radically reconstructed by a series of Acts of Parliament,

Local Government

including for England the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835, the Public Health Acts of 1848 and 1875, the Education Acts of 1870 and 1902, the County Councils Act of 1888, and the Local Government Act of 1894; and corresponding acts for Scotland and Ireland.

In England, the two most important local government districts, the county and the borough, are old historical units, but their authorities have been thoroughly recast; and there are also now other local areas, such as urban and rural districts, poor law unions, and parishes. The focal authorities are elected by a substantially democratic electorate; and in general the popular vote elects only members of unpaid councils, who choose the salaried officials and direct them.

Counties. In each of the historical shires of England, the old offices of sheriff, lord lieutenant, and justice of the peace are still filled by appointment of the central government. By the Act of 1888 there was established elective county councils, which have charge of the local county administration. A few of the larger counties are divided into several administrative counties for this purpose; the larger boroughs are classed as county boroughs, and a special administrative county of London has also been created. (See LONDON.)

The County Councils consist of councillors, elected by wards, for a term of three years, aldermen (equal to one-third of the councillors) elected by the councillors for a term of six years, and a chairman elected by the council. They maintain county buildings, main roads, bridges, and lunatic asylums; appoint county surveyors, treasurers, coroners, and public analysts; make local by-laws, levy county rates, and distribute to minor local authorities the grants made by the central government. The county councils also share with the justices of the peace in the management of the county police. By the Act of 1902, the county councils are made educational authorities supervising the local management of schools through an education committee.

Municipal Government.-Urban areas (outside of the metropolis) are organized for municipal purposes in three classes-county boroughs, municipal boroughs, and other urban districts. The county boroughs include about seventy of the larger boroughs (such as Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, etc.), in which the borough authorities have the powers of a county council as well as those of a municipal borough and urban district; but their organization and administrative methods are similar to those in the municipal boroughs. There are about 250 municipal boroughs and about 700 other urban districts.

Local Government

In every borough there is a Town Council, composed of councillors elected in wards, aldermen elected by the councillors, and a mayor elected by the council. The councillors are elected for a term of three years, one-third in November of each year; the aldermen have a term of six years, one-half retiring every third year. Re-elections are frequent. The town council sits as one body in which are vested all the powers of the municipal corporation. The mayor is chosen for a one-year term, and re-elections are not common. He presides over the meetings of the council, but has no veto or appointing power, and his position is one of honor rather than of active leadership in municipal affairs.

Municipal elections in the large provincial towns of England are usually on party lines; but in the working of municipal government there is little evidence of party divisions. The work of the town council is carried on to a large extent by an elaborate system of committees. The detailed administration is directed by a staff of permanent salaried officials. The most important is the town clerk, who not only keeps the records, but is also the chief law officer of the city. Other officials are the treasurer, accountant, chief constable, surveyor, health officer, and superintendents of various public works and institutions.

The powers and functions of the borough authorities include the police (in most boroughs), sanitary control and regulation, street and other public improvements, parks, and libraries. In most boroughs there are municipal water works, and in many municipal gas and electric light works, street railways, public baths, and municipal dwelling houses. (See MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP.) Since 1902 the local management of schools in most boroughs has been placed in the hands of the town councils. Poor relief is not a borough function.

The urban districts which are not boroughs are mostly smaller places; but, in the vicinity of London, there are a number of urban districts with a population of over 100,000. The organization of urban districts is simpler than that of the boroughs. There is a council, the members of which are elected for three years; but there are no aldermen, and a chairman in place of a mayor. The powers of the urban districts include most of those held by the boroughs, except the control of the police and the general grant of power to enact local by-laws; while only a few of the large urban districts have charge of local school management.

Rural Districts.-The counties outside of the boroughs and urban districts are divided into districts, in each of which there is elected a council similar to the urban district VOL. VII.-Jan. '11.

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council. The rural district councils have powers in regard to highways, sanitary improvements, and other local matters similar to, but not so extensive as those of urban districts.

Poor-Law Unions.-England and Wales is also divided for poorlaw purposes into another series of districts composed of unions of parishes. Poor-law unions may be wholly urban, or partly urban and partly rural-in the latter case the area corresponding in most instances to that of the rural districts, including any urban districts within the boundaries. The local administration of the poor law is in the hands of boards of poor-law guardians, composed of the members of rural district councils and of other members elected from the urban parts of any poor-law union. These boards manage the workhouse and poor-law schools, and administer other relief under the supervision of the Local Government Board.

Parishes.-There are about 15,000 civil parishes in England and Wales; and the Local Government Act of 1894 attempted to increase the importance of this district. Provision is made for parish meetings and parish councils, with a considerable list of powers to look after minor local matters. But the powers and activities of the larger districts appear to leave but little to the parish; and the new system has not had important results.

Central Supervision. — During the nineteenth century central administrative supervision of local government has been developed to a considerable degree. This began with the administration of poor relief, where a high degree of central control was introduced in 1834; and this has been maintained to the present time. Later, central supervision was introduced in the fields of sanitation, police, education, local finance, and other matters. This supervision is exercised by several government departments. The Local Government Board (organized in 1871) has general supervision over poor relief, sanitation, and local finances; the Home Secretary of police and municipal bylaws; the Board of Education of school administration; and the Board of Trade of municipal utilities, such as gas and electric-light works and street railways.

The degree of central control varies a good deal in different fields and with reference to different local authorities. It is most intensive in the poor-law administration, and least in relation to the boroughs. In general, it is based on the examination of local conditions by agents of the central departments, and the approval by the central department of local plans; but in some matters the central departments have_important compulsory powers. Parliament also makes large grants of revenues to local authorities; and

Local Government

this has aided in establishing the system of central supervision.

SCOTLAND. The main features of local government in Scotland are similar to those in England and Wales; but there is a separate series of Parliamentary acts applying to Scotland, containing some distinctive provisions of considerable importance. The principal local government districts are the county, burgh, district, and parish. Each of these districts has an elected council; but in none of the Scotch bodies is there a special class of aldermen. In the burghs, one-third of the council are chosen as bailies, who act as police magistrates; and the chief officer of the burgh is called the provost, and elected for three years. The sheriff in Scotland still exercises judicial powers, and is a member of the joint committee on county police. The county, burgh, and rural district councils have much the same powers as in England and Wales. The parish councils in Scotland are the poor-law authorities; and there are also parish school boards in charge of the local schools. The central authorities are the Secretary for Scotland, Local Government Board for Scotland, and the Scotch Board of Education.

IRELAND. Local government districts and authorities are similar to those in England and Wales. There are counties, districts, boroughs, and poor- law unions, each with its council. The police administration (except in Dublin) is centralized in the Royal Irish Constabulary. The principal central authorities are the Lord Lieutenant, Chief Secretary, and Local Government Board.

FRANCE.-Local government in France is still more highly centralized than in most other countries. Before the Revolution, a high degree of centralization had been established; and after a few years of large local autonomy, a more thoroughly centralized system than before was established under Napoleon. Since 1830, local elected authorities have been established and their powers extended, but they are still subject to close supervision by agents of the central government.

France is divided into 86 departments; these are subdivided into arrondissements; while the smallest local unit is the commune. In each department there is a prefect, a political official appointed by the central government, and the chief executive of the department for local affairs. In each department there is also a council general, a representative assembly elected by universal suffrage for terms of six years, one-half every third year. This has charge of main roads (other than the national highways), and public institutions, and levies taxes for these and other departmental purposes, subject to strict

Local Government

central control. Each arrondissement has an appointed sub-prefect and an elected council, but neither has much power.

There are 36,000 communes, ranging from the smallest rural parish to the largest cities, and all (except Paris, and in some respects Lyons) are governed on the same plan. There is a council elected for terms of four years, which votes taxes and appropriations and decides on matters of local policy. The council also elects from its own membership the mayor and a number of assistants. The mayor, like the prefects, acts both as agent of the central government and as local executive. In the former capacity, he is under strict supervision by the prefect; and control of police and public health matters are included in this sphere. As local executive, he has charge of carrying out the action of the council, assigning the assistants to special fields of work.

Through the prefects and subprefects the central government supervises not only the mayors, but also the elected councils, whose budgets must be approved by the higher authorities, while a large proportion of the expenditures are obligatory. The mayors and elected councils may be suspended by the higher authorities, and may be removed or dissolved by the President of the Republic.

In Paris there is an elected municipal council; but the local administration is under the direct control of the Prefect of the department of the Seine and the Prefect of Police, both appointed by the central government.

Central supervision of the whole system of local government is exercised mainly by the Minister of the Interior; but other Ministers deal with matters arising in their branches of administration. educational system is even more thoroughly centralized.

The

Judicial control over local officials is exercised mainly by special administrative courts. A small appointed council attached to each prefecture deals with most of the minor cases, largely with tax and election questions. A section of the Council of State is the highest administrative court.

ITALY.-Local government in Italy is very similar to that in France, but less highly centralized. The country is divided into provinces, circondari, mandamenti, and communes. In each province there is an appointed prefect and an elected council, similar to the organization of the French department; but the executive committee of the provincial council has larger powers than in France. In the communes there is also an elected council, which elects the syndic (who corresponds to the mayor) and an executive committee from its own membership.

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GERMANY.-Local government in Germany is regulated by the different states, and there are important differences between the several states. But certain common ideas are generally followed. The most important officials are a professional class, holding office for long terms; and the elected bodies are chosen on a less democratic basis than in Great Britain or France.

Prussia. A brief account of local institutions in this, the largest and much the most important state, will indicate some of the outlines of local organization. Prussia is divided into twelve provinces, which are historical territories. These are divided into districts (Regierungsbezirke), and these into counties (Kreise). The cities and rural communes are each organized under different laws.

In each province there is an appointed governor and a diet elected by a complicated process. The diet elects an executive committee, and the latter in turn chooses a majority of the provincial council, which acts with the governor in many matters. The district has a government board appointed by the central (Prussian) government and a district committee, composed partly of appointed members and partly of members chosen by the provincial committee. The district has no locally elected council.

The county (Kreis) is organized much like the French department, although a smaller and less important district. There is a landrath, appointed by the central government, and a diet, elected under a three-class system.

In the cities there is a council, elected by a three-class system of voting; and this council chooses the burgomaster and other executive officers, who are largely salaried and professional officials, whose appointment must be confirmed by the central government. In most provinces of Prussia the executive officers constitute a board acting collectively in many matters; but in Western Prussia the burgomaster is distinctly the chief executive.

Other German States.-In Saxony and Baden the system of local government resembles that of Prussia most closely. In Bavaria there are greater differences; but the main characteristics throughout Germany are worked out in somewhat different ways. In Würtemburg, local government is less developed than in Prussia. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck are members of the Empire, framing their own organization, which deals at the same time with both municipal and state affairs.

CANADA.-Local government in Canada under the French régime is a subject but imperfectly known; it offers an excellent field for historical research. Despite the cen

Local Option

tralized power of the Intendant, there appears to have been much more vigorous local institutional life than is generally supposeda view borne out by recent investigations into local history, as, for example, Roy's Seignourie de Lauzun. Under British rule, especially since confederation, local government has been the creation of provincial authority. The county system prevails for the larger administrative areas; for the smaller, the township, and in some cases the parish. Municipal government offers problems analogous to those of American cities, and the efforts to 'purify' town politics have taken much the same direction. Many of the local administrative areas throughout the Dominion are of quite recent creation. In the territories, the federal authority has always encouraged any movement for the institution of self-governing

areas.

Consult Ash

BIBLIOGRAPHY. ley's Local and Central Government (1906); Goodnow's Comparative Administrative Law (1893); Administrative Law of the United States; City Government in the United States (1904); Municipal Government (1909); Fairlie's Municipal Administration (1901); Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Villages (1906); Howard's Local Constitutional History (1889); Lowell's Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (1896); The Government of England (1908); Munro's Government of European Cities (1909); Redlich and Hirst's Local Government in England (1903); Atkinson's Local Government in Scotland; Congrès International des Sciences Administratives (1910); Encyclopedia of Local Government Law (1905); Bourinot's Local Government in Canada.

Local Option. This term has come to be used in a special sense for the legal authority granted to a local district, such as a county, city, or town, to determine by popular vote whether the sale of alcoholic beverages shall be permitted or prohibited within the district. Local option Isaid to have been granted by an Indiana law as early as 1832; and this power was conferred in many States before 1850. During the period of sectional strife the movement declined; but later it revived, and since 1900 has been further extended, until laws authorizing local prohibition are (1911) in force in thirty-three States and Territories, as follows:

By counties: Delaware, Maryland, South Carolina, Michigan, Montana, and Idaho.

By counties and smaller districts: Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, Louisiana, Texas, Arizona, California, Oregon, and Washing

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Loc. cit.

local districts: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Illinois, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and Arkan

sas.

Local option or State prohibition is established in all the States and Territories except New Jersey, Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, New Mexico, Nevada, and Wyoming. Under local option most of the counties in the Southern States are 'dry'; as are also large areas in New England and the North Central States.

The local option system offers a middle ground between State prohibition and a general system of licensing the liquor traffic. It is often accepted by prohibitionists as a partial measure, and at the same time is favored by less ardent opponents of the saloon, and is sometimes acquiesced in, or even supported by liquor dealers as a means of avoiding threatened State pro

hibition.

Local prohibition of the liquor traffic is also authorized in Canada and other British colonies. In Great Britain there has been considerable discussion of the question under the name of Local Veto; but up to 1911 no legislative action had been taken. See LIQUOR LAWS; PROHIBITION.

Loc. cit., loco citato-i.e., 'in the place quoted.'

Lochaber, district, Invernessshire, Scotland, bounded by Lochs Leven, Linnhe, and Gil. The district abounds in wild glens, broad moors, and lofty mountains. 'Farewell to Lochaber' forms the subject of one of Allan Ramsay's songs.

Loches (ancient Leuca), town, department Indre-et-Loire, France, on the Indre River; 23 m. southeast of Tours. It has a famous castle, built by Charles VII., which was converted into a state prison during the reign of Louis XI. town has tanneries, and trades in agricultural products. Pop. 5,500.

The

Lochgelly, town, Fifeshire, Scotland, 7 m. northwest of Dunfermline. It has extensive collieries and iron works. Pop. 5,500.

Lochleven. See LEVEN, LOCH. Lock. See LOCKS AND KEYS. Locke, JOHN (1632-1704), the parent and representative of Engfish philosophical thought in the 18th century, was born at Wrington, in Somersetshire. In Elizabeth's reign his grandfather, a prosperous Puritan trader, removed from Dorset into Somerset. Before the future philosopher's childhood was ended, his mother died, and then his father directed the hometraining of the son. The desultory home-training at Beluton was followed in 1646 by six years at Westminster School, at that time under Puritan control. In 1652 Locke moved from Westminster VOL. VII.-Jan. '11

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to Oxford, and entered Christ Church.

It was at Oxford that Locke was directed to his life-work. A disposition at once metaphysical and religious had attracted him

John Locke.

to theology, but a growing taste for experiment in nature engaged him in the end in physical research and the study of medicine, and before 1666 he engaged in medical practice. In 1667 Lord Ashley became his patron, and in 1668 Locke exchanged Christ Church for Exeter House in the Strand, and while he retained his studentship at Oxford, and had inherited Beluton from his father, he shared fortune during the fourteen following years with the famous English statesman.

Life at Exeter House trained him practically in public affairs, and opened personal intercourse with those who were at the springs of political action. In 1672 he was made secretary of the Board of Trade under Lord Shaftesbury, in which office, with Exeter House for his home, he worked with singular exactness till 1675, when Shaftesbury quarrelled with the court, and resigned. Thus relieved of official cares, Locke retired for four years to France, where, at Montpelier and in Paris, he availed himself of this signal opportunity for prosecuting a work he had lately contemplated. It was then that the chief enterprise of his life took shape, in the form of the Essay concerning Human Understanding, published fifteen years later. In 1679 he returned to London, and resumed his place in Shaftesbury's household. He was unjustly suspected of treason on account of his relations with

Locke

Shaftesbury, and before the end of 1683 he was an exile in Holland.

In 1688 the course of English politics opened Locke's way back to England. He returned to begin his life of authorship-for him a new career. His first appearance took the form of a characteristic Letter for Toleration, prepared in Holland, and published anonymously at Gouda in 1689. An English translation appeared soon after in London, which occasioned controversy, and drew from Locke a Second Letter for Toleration in 1690. In the same year he published An Essay on Civil Government, in vindication of the principles of the revolution, which has been considered by a high authority as the most important contribution ever made to English constitutional law by an author who was not a lawyer by profession. But 1690 is chiefly memorable in Locke's history for the publication of the famous Essay concerning Human Understanding. He received $150 for the copyright. A like sum was given to Kant ninety-one years after for his Kritik, the philosophical complement to this Essay of Locke. Animated by the modern spirit, Locke saw in 'experience the measure of human knowledge of the realities amidst which man finds himself. The critical analysis of our knowledge, initiated by Locke and elaborated by Kant, is, in its consequences, the most important philosophical step in advance made by modern thought; it has opened the way to our present theological and philosophical attitude. The Essay secured an extraordinary popularity, unprecedented in the case of a philosophical treatise.

Locke's name has been associated with an elaborate and impractical constitution drawn up for Carolina in 1669, but never put fully into operation and entirely abandoned in 1693. The scheme provided for three houses of nobility and four houses of parliament, and sanctioned negro slavery. The one provision which is definitely ascribed to Locke is the clause permitting the formation of a church by any seven persons who professed belief in God and upheld the duty of public worship. Locke was appointed secretary to the Carolina proprietors, and seems to have retained an active interest in the scheme until 1672.

In 1691 two winters of authorship in London had aggravated Locke's chronic ailments. It was then that a rural home in the secluded manor - house of Otes in Essex opened to receive him. It was the country house of Sir Thomas Masham, with whose

[graphic]

Locker-Lampson

family Locke was intimate before his exile in Holland. Here he lived as a member of the Masham. family during the remaining years of his life. In 1696 he was made a commissioner of trade, a very honorable employment, with $5,000 a year of salary annexed.' A Third Letter for Toleration (1692); Thoughts concerning Education (1693); an amended edition of the Essay (1694), followed by a third in 1695; financial tracts on the Rate of Interest (1691) and on the Coining of Silver (1695); an Essay on the Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), followed by Vindications of the same against hostile critics (1695); three elaborate Letters in controversy with Bishop Stillingfleet concerning doubtful passages in the Essay on Human Understanding (1697-9); and a fourth edition of the Essay, further amended, in 1700, all bear testimony to the busy mind at work at Otes.

The last four years of Locke's life were largely devoted to exegetical annotation of the Epistles of St. Paul, in which he applied the liberal principles of his Essay to the interpretation of records which he reverenced in the spirit of the Puritanism of his youth, now enlightened by more comprehensive vision. The commentaries were given to the world soon after his death. In 1706 a volume of posthumous works appeared, followed in 1720 by another edited by De Maisiaux.

was

Many collected editions of Locke's Works (which first appeared in 1704) have been published, the best that of Bishop Law (4 vols. 1777). There are some forty editions of the Essay, the latest edition being Professor Campbell Fraser's, with notes and prolegomena (1894). It translated into French (1700), and into Latin (1701). See Leibniz's Nouveaux Essais (1765); Leclerc's Eloge Historique (1710); Dugald Stewart's Philosophical Essays (1810); Lord King's Life of John Locke (1829): Schärer's John Locke (1860); Cousin's La Philosophie de Locke (1861); Fox Bourne's Life of Locke (1876); Fowler's Locke, in 'English Men of Letters' (1880); Fraser's Locke, in Philosophical Classics' (1890): Hertling's John Locke und die Schule von Cambridge (1892); and Martinaf's Die Logik John Lockes (1894); also Russell's The Philosophy of Locke (1891).

Locker-Lampson, FREDERICK (1821-95), English poet; served for some years in Somerset House and at the Admiralty, until his health broke down in 1849. 1857 he published a volume of original verse, under the title of London Lyrics, which appeared

In

371

in a great variety of editions between that year and 1893. His other publications were two anthologies, Lyra Elegantiarum (1867) and Patchwork (1879); an autobiography posthumously published as My Confidences (1896); and a catalogue of the valuable library at Rowfant, where he resided for the last twenty years of his life. His original verse is neat and finished in style, and his literary taste was excellent.

Lockhart, city, Tex., co. seat of Caldwell co., 30 m. s. by E. of Austin, on the Mo., Kan., and Tex. and the San Antonio and Aransas Pass R. Rs. It has manufactures of cotton and cottonseed-oil and is the trade centre of an agricultural section. It has a collegiate institute and a public library. The first settlement was made in 1846. Pop. (1900) 2,306.

Lockhart, JOHN GIBSON (17941854), biographer of Sir Walter Scott, born at Cambusnethan ; educated at Glasgow and Oxford, and, after studying law in Edinburgh, became an advocate in 1816. His tastes led him towards literature, and his first work was a translation of Schlegel's History of Literature. He contributed frequently to Blackwood's Magazine, and is believed to have collaborated with James Hogg in the Chaldee Manuscript, one of the early successes of Maga.' Lockhart made the friendship of Sir Walter Scott, and in 1820 married his daughter Sophia. About this time he wrote the historical part of the Edinburgh Annual Register, and in 1819 published Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk, a description of Edinburgh society. Into it was infused not a little of Lockhart's irrepressible satire, which gave rise to some bitterness among Edinburgh Whigs.

In

1825 Lockhart accepted the editorship of the Quarterly Review, which he conducted with marked success until 1853. At this time he wrote a 'Life of Burns' for Constable's Miscellany (1828), and a 'Life of Napoleon' (1829) for Murray's Family Library, the publication of which he superintended. In 1838 appeared the last volume of his Life of Scott -his greatest work. Lockhart also published four novels: Ancient Spanish Ballads (trans. 1823); a History of the late War, with Sketches of Nelson, Wellington, and Napoleon (1832); and The Ballantyne Humbug Handled (1839). See Lange's Life and Letters of Lockhart (1897); Croker's Memoirs (1884); Smiles's Memoirs of John Murray (1891); and Ornsby's Memories of HopeScott (1884).

Lock Haven, city, Pa., co. seat of Clinton co., on 1. bk. of the Susquehanna R., at the conflu

Lockroy

ence of Bald Eagle creek, on the Pa. and the N. Y. C. and H. R. R. Rs., and on the Pa. Canal, 20 m. w.s.w. of Williamsport. It has fire and building brick plants, a paper mill, tannery, furniture factory, wire mills, planing mills, cigar factories, silk mill, crushed stone plant, concrete works, a machine shop, etc. It is the seat of the Central State Normal School. Other public institutions are the Lock Haven Hospitals and the Lock Haven Library. It was settled in 1834. Pop. (1900) 7,210.

Lockjaw. See TETANUS.

Lockland, vil., Hamilton co., O., 8 m. N.N.E. of Cincinnati, on the Cle., Ham. and Day. and the Clev., Cin., Chi., and St. L. R. Rs., and on the Miami and Erie Canal. It has manufactures of paper, cotton, flour, and asbestos. Pop. (1896) 2,695.

Lockport. City, N. Y., co. seat of Niagara co., 25 m. N.N.E. of Buffalo, on the Erie Canal and on the N. Y. C. and H. R. and the Erie R. Rs. The N. Y. Central R. R. bridge, here spanning the canal, is 500 ft. in length and 60 ft. above the canal which is lowered that amount by a series of 12 locks to the level of Lake Erie. The hydraulic power which is derived from the locks is used in manufacturing. Among the important manufactures are iron, paper, woollen goods, furniture, carriages, pumping machinery, brass bedsteads, woven belting and webbing, glassware, brooms, flour and other cereal foods, and shirts. There is an extensive business in job printing. Quarries of Niagara limestone occur in the neighborhood. An important grain and fruit trade is carried on. The chief buildings are the U. S. government building, Hodge Opera House, court house, and other county buildings. The educational and charitable institutions include St. Joseph's Academy, female seminary (R. C.), Odd Fellow's Home, Home for Friendless Children, and the city hospital. Lockport was settled about 1810 and incorporated in 1829. Pop. (1905) 17,552. (2.) Vil., Will co., Ill., 30 m. s.w. of Chicago, on the A., T., and Santa Fe and the Chi. and Alt. R. Rs. and on the Illinois and Michigan Canal. It has flour and paper mills and a brass foundry. The limestone quarries of the vicinity are notable. Pop. (1900) 2,659.

Lockroy, EDOUARD ETIENNE ANTOINE (1838), French politician and journalist: studied art in Paris and accompanied Renan as secretary and draughtsman to the Holy Land (1860-4). On his return he became a journalist in Paris, and was elected to the National Assembly, resigning at the

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