Army Corps

Department; the Journals of the Military Service Institution; of the United States Artillery, of the Cavalry Association, of the In fantry Association, and of the United Service.

Army Corps. The size of armies necessitated their subdivison into army corps. Infantry divisions, supplemented by cavalry, guns, and administrative services, were accordingly combined, and the force thus created formed in itself a miniature army. The army corps organization, first definitely adopted by Napoleon in 1803, has, with certain modifications, been retained in all large armies. In Prussia the territory of the kingdom was divided into army corps districts, and the corps commanders not only became the leaders of these units in war, but the superintendents of their recruiting, training, and equipment in time of peace. The advantage of this arrangement is obvious and after the Franco-German War of 1870, the system of territorial localization was adopted by all continental nations. The German army corps may be taken as a type. Its component parts are the general staff, 2 infantry divisions (to which cavalry and artillery are attached), 1 battalion of rifles, 1 telegraph section, corps bridge train, 6 provision columns, 7 wagon park columns, 1 field bakery column, 1 horse depôt, 1 bearer company, 12 field hospitals, 8 ammunition columns. The total strength is 38,058 men, with 11.083 horses and 1,714 carriages. The fighting strength, exclusive of officers and non-combatants, may be taken as 25,000 infantry, 900 cavalry, and 144 guns. The amount of cavairy varies considerably, according to the particular conditions of a campaign. The following changes have been recently made in organization and equipment: the corps artillery has been abolished, and its guns equally divided between the two infantry divisions; light ammunition columns form an echelon between the batteries and the heavy ammunition columns; a special telegraph unit has been formed; the infantry has been re-armed with an improved rifle, and the artillery has adopted quick-firing field guns and field howitzers. In Great Britain the army corps has

never hitherto ex

isted as a permanent fighting unit. For administrative purposes it was decided in 1902-3 to have a system of territorial organization adapted for six corps, and to follow as far as practicable the continental methods; but this organization has recently been abandoned in favor of a system of districts, or 'commands,' in which Aldershot alone retains the position of an army corps. A

385

British command consists of three infantry divisions and a due proportion of the other units. In the United States the army corps does not exist in time of peace, the highest administrative units being the regiment in the infantry and cavalry and the district in the artillery. Exception must be made for the annual manoeuvres, when the higher units are organized for purposes of instruction. During the war with Spain the 280,000 men mustered into the service were organized into army corps of which the Fifth, commanded by Gen. Shafter, may be taken as an example, although much below the average in strength. This corps contained, at the surrender of Santiago, 803 officers and 14,935 enlisted men, divided as follows:

Army in the Field

Manchurian campaign, Cape Town and Durban for wars in S. Africa, etc. Where the theatre of war is far from a seaport, the base is necessarily inland-as, for example, Peshawar and Kohat during campaigns in Afghanistan, and Harbin for the Russian army after the siege of Port Arthur and the destruction of their navy. The selection of a base in a friendly country has obvious advantages, as it gives time for preparations being made before the actual arrival of the troops. It may often happen that the situation of a base can only be secured by force, as in the case of Balaklava in the Crimean War, and Dalny in the Japanese-Russian War; or by stratagem, as in the case of Ismailia in the Egyptian campaign. As an army

This corps had two infantry divisions, a cavalry division, an artillery battalion, an independent brigade of infantry, and detachments of engineers and signal corps men. The 8th Army Corps, in the Philippine Islands, was more of a territorial administrative unit, and in December, 1900, contained 69,420 officers and men, of all arms of the service. See ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES.

Army in the Field. In time of war the army of the United States consists of the Regular Army and the Volunteer Army, the latter maintained only during the existence of war or while war is imminent. The two branches are generally both represented in the brigades, divisions, and corps into which the army is subdivided, retaining their separate regimental organizations. Separate armies receive territorial designations, as the army in Cuba, the Army of the Potomac, etc.

Before entering upon field operations, it is necessary to have a secure base of operations. The movement across the seas of any large body of troops, with their attendant equipment and stores, necessitates a disembarkation on a seashore, and a preliminary collection and organization matériel. A maritime base is, therefore, in many cases a necessity-as, for example, Siboney, during the Cuban campaign, Manila, during the Philippine insurrection, Dalny, during the siege of Port Arthur and the

of

moves forward, a line of commu nications becomes necessary, along which the personnel and matériel collected is forwarded, and by means of which sick, wounded, prisoners, etc., are removed from the theatre of actual hostilities. The provost marshal general's department has a sufficient force to preserve proper police throughout the army, and especially along the lines of communication. This department is also charged with the protection of the inhabitants of the country. The length of the line of communications may vary from a few miles, as in the Crimean War and campaigns against Port Arthur and Santiago, to hun dreds of miles, as in the Nile expedition, the S. African campaign of 1899-1902, or the Russian line from Moscow to Harbin. The line consists of a chain of military stations connected by a route traversed by rail, road, or river transport, or a combination of all three. With an unfriendly population, such as that in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, or a vigilant and active enemy, such as the Japanese in Manchu ria, a large force is necessary to guard the line. Each station or depôt becomes a defensive fort, blockhouses protect vulnerable points such as defiles or bridges, and flying columns have to keep the enemy at a distance. As the army advances the length of the line of communications increases, and it is necessary to organize it into sections. Wherever there

Army in the Field

is a break in bulk in the convey. ance of stores, a depôt is necessarily formed; and in each section at important points there must be hospitals, rest stations, and accumulations of commissariat and ordnance stores. The elaborate and detailed regulations of the great military powers are adapted only to continental and civilized warfare, but the main principles underlying them are in force in foreign expeditions. The organization of the base of operations and the various sections of the line of communications is under one head, and the staff of the entire supply arrangements is independent of the troops utilizing them. A suitable general officer is assigned by the War Department as commander of the base and lines of communications. He is assisted by a commander at the base, a provost marshal of base and line of communications, and eight chiefs; of transportation, railway service, water transports, commissary, ordnance, paymaster, medical officer and telegraph and telephone service, respectively. The usual method by which an army is supplied is an adaptation of the magazine and requisition systems. Arms, ammunition, accoutrements, clothing, harness, tools, and stores in general, are forwarded to troops from the nearest magazines; but ordinary transport, and as much as possible of the daily food for men and horses, are drawn from the theatre of war. In a civilized country the inhabitants may be forced to supply lodging as well as food, and requisitions may be made for staple commodities. As a general principle, everything is paid for in cash or by promissory notes, and the forcible taking of supplies is limited as far as possible. Purchase in the open market is authorized in the field, and, by establishing good relations between the natives of a country and the army, often enables supplies to be ob tained which would otherwise be concealed. The object of an efficient supply system is to keep full the knapsack reserve (the food which the soldier actually carries with him) and the supply column reserve (which is carried for him on wagons which closely follow up the troops. Food has to be issued as a rule daily, and the unexpended portion of a ration can be carried on the person. In addition, each soldier is supplied with a reserve or emergency ration of biscuit ('hard tack'), pemmican, preserved meat, concentrated foods, etc., which may only be opened by order of a superior officer. In European warfare, railways and roads have alone to be considered; but in the Philippines, the plains of India. or the forests of Burma, very different

386

conditions arise, and details of transport may vary. A general transport of a semi-military character is worked from the base of operations to the advanced depôt in rear of an army, or to the magazines nearest to the troops to be supplied. The labor, carts, animals, etc., are mainly procured from the country, while the su pervision is of a military character, and drawn from the staff of the line of communications. From these depôts supplies are sent to the troops daily by trains assigned to each unit. A regiment of infantry, cavalry, or field artillery has its own train, these regimental trains being combined when necessary to facilitate guarding the supplies. The U. S. army uses a four-mule wagon with a capacity of about 3,000 pounds. An infantry regiment has 23, one of cavalry 40, and one of field artillery 45 of these escort wagons. To each division 105 wagons are assigned for reserve ammunition, divided into 5 columns of 21 wagons each, which ply between the fighting line and ordnance train; and 81 wagons divided into 3 sections for a supply column which plies between the advanced commissary storehouse and the troops. These numbers vary, however, with the circumstances of each case. Under suitable conditions, troops should be able to move on emergency for two or three days by utilizing the resources of the country, their regimental transport, and their reserve rations. The supply columns and supply parks of the division carry three to four days' provision for ordinary use, and thus extend the area in which troops can act. In addition to the collection and distribution of supplies, the staff of the line of communications has to utilize and often create postal and telegraph services. The collection and dissemination of information, and preventing information reaching an enemy, is a task for the service of security and information, but the bulk of the work and the censorship of the press will be associated with the main centres that lie on the line of communications. The advantage of keeping up communication by telegraph, heliograph, or other means, along the route between its various magazines and depôts, is obvious, and the post of director of telegraphs in a campaign is an important

one.

Next to the problem of providing ammunition and supplies, however, that of a proper medical and sanitary service is probably most important. It is a matter of history that far more men die of disease during a campaign than from all other causes combined. Four complete field hospitals are

Army Register

assigned to each division of a U.S. army corps, and this in addition to regimental and other hospitals. The medical and sanitary service of the Japanese armies called forth the highest praise for its work in Manchuria during the late war. See Sharpe, Provisioning an Army in the Field (19(5); QUARTERMASTER AND SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENTS; also MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. FIELD SERVICE REGULATIONS, U. S. ARMY, and histories of all recent campaigns; also Wagner's Organization and Tactics (1893).

Army List and Directory, a pamphlet is issued from the office of the military secretary on the 20th of each month, and containing the name of every officer in the U. S. army, both active and retired, with their present addresses. It gives the name and location of every organization of the army with the names of the officers attached thereto; a list of all garrisoned posts, camps, etc.; the relative rank of all officers on the active list; the officers on duty at division and department headquarters, on recruiting duty, at schools and colleges, military attachés; and, finally, the changes among the commissioned personnel of the army since the last issue.

Army Register. An annual publication issued from the office of the military secretary, who is especially charged with its compilation and distribution, and published in accordance with the Revised Statutes of the United States. Originally a small leaflet of a few pages, it is now a large volume of over 600 pages. It contains a complete list of the officers on the active list of the army, with the department, arm of the service, regiment, corps and company to which each belongs, together with various other personal and military data. There is also a list of all officers on the retired list (limited, unlimited, and under special acts of Congress), giving name, rank, date of rank, highest brevet rank, date and cause of retirement, etc. It next contains a list of aide-de-camps to general officers, the officers (professors, etc.) on duty at the military academy, and the three most distinguished students at each university in the U. S. having a military department conducted by a regular army officer. This is followed by lists of officers arranged according to lineal rank, and according to relative rank. Then comes a list of active and retired officers on whom brevet rank has been con ferred, stating the service for which brevetted, a list of all persons who have received the congressional medal of honor, and of those to whom certificates of

Army Schools

merit have been granted. It also contains a list of casualties during the year; of military posts; a table giving the organization of the army; a complete pay table for the army; a statement showing the strength of the organized militia by states; and a complete index. All foreign armies issue similar publications; in England it appears quarterly as the Army List, with an abridged form published monthly.

Army Schools. See MILITARY EDUCATION.

Army Service Corps. A detachment of men on duty at the U. S. Military Academy, West Point, N. Y., regularly enlisted for general service, such as clerks, janitors, mechanics, engineers, firemen and laborers, and under military discipline and control. In other posts of the U. S. army this work is done by enlisted men detailed on extra and special duty, the difference in these two classes being that for 'extra' duty, extra pay is allowed, while for special duty it is not. From 15 to 25 per cent. of the enlisted strength of the army is engaged in the daily performance of duties which are not military, thereby subtracting that much from the training and efficiency of the army in time of peace. In time of war, all these men go into the fighting line, leaving untrained civilian employés not under military discipline or control, but picked up wherever possible, to take their places in the administrative and supply departments. For these reasons, and on the grounds of economy to the government, efforts are now being made to have the system at West Point extended to the rest of the army, as is done in all other civilized countries, where the entire question of transportation and supply, in times of peace and war, is in the hands of the Army Service Corps, organized and trained for these important and even vital functions.

Army-Worm, the caterpillar of a dark-colored, night-flying, destructive moth (Leucania unipuncta), which does much damage in the U. S. to grass, and also, in certain seasons, is most destructive to Indian corn. Its ravages are usually lessened by ploughing a deep furrow round the field attacked by the pest, in which the worms are collected, covered with straw, and burned. Its name is derived from the fact that the caterpillars occasionally appear in hordes, marching across the country like armies. Another 'fall army-worm' or grass-worm, sometimes a pest, is the larva of a different moth (Laphygna frugiperda). See Howard, The Insect Book (1902).

Arnaboldi, ALESSANDRO (182798), Italian poet, born in Milan

387

was secret:y to the town council at Milan until 1873. In 1872 he published a volume of Versi, which put him in the front rank of the modern poets of his country. In 1888 he published a new collection, Nuovi Versi. See Hamilton's Poems and Transcripts (1878).

Arnason, JON (1819-88), Icelandic author and writer of folktales, was born at Hof, and died at Reykjavik, where he was for several years custodian of the Icelandic national library. He is known in this country as well as on the Continent of Europe for his admirable collection of popular Icelandic tales, which has won him the title of the 'Grimm of Iceland.' His collection of these stories was entitled Popular Legends and Tales of Iceland (1862-64).

Arnaud, HENRI (1641-1721), Waldensian clergyman and patriot, pastor of La Tour in Piedmont, was forced, in the persecution of the Vaudois by Victor Amadeus of Savoy, to retire to Switzerland in 1686. In 1689 he led the 'glorious return of the Vaudois to their valleys,' in spite of the attacks of the French and Savoyards. The Duke of Savoy granted religious liberty to the Vaudois; but on his reconciliation with France the concession was withdrawn, and the Vaudois had to find a retreat in Würtemberg. Arnaud's expedition is described in his Histoire de la Glorieuse Rentrée des Vaudois dans leurs Vallées, printed in 1710, with a dedication to Queen Anne. See also Muret's Histoire de Henri Arnaud (1853).

Arnauld, ANGÉLIQUE (162484), distinguished religieuse, born in Paris, and educated by her aunt, Marie Angélique Arnauld. She became prioress (1653) and abbess (1678) of Port-Royal, and was persecuted by the Jesuits. She was principal author of Mémoires.... de Port-Royal (1742). See SainteBeuve's Port-Royal (1878), and Beard's Port-Royal (1861).

Arnauld, ANTOINE (15601619), French advocate, born in Paris. He became procureurgénéral in 1585. He is remembered for his defence of the University of Paris against the Jesuits, which resulted in their temporary banishment. He was the father of 'le grand Arnauld,' and had six daughters who took the veil at Port-Royal.

Arnauld, ANTOINE (1612-94), Jansenist theologian, was born in Paris, and educated at the Sorbonne. Retiring to Port-Royal monastery, he became the strenuous adversary of the Jesuits. He was expelled from the society of the Sorbonne for his support of the Jansenists. To avoid the persecutions of the Jesuits, he became an exile in 1679, thereafter

Arndt

residing in Flanders and Holland. He gave assistance to Pascal with his Lettres Ecrites à un Provincial de ses Amis, and to Lancelot with his Grammaire. He was a devout Catholic, believing in 'the corruption of human nature and the depravity of the will,' and one of the profoundest metaphysicians of his century. His great work, the Logique de Port-Royal, was written in conjunction with Nicole (1st ed. 1662; Eng. ed. 1881). See Larrière's Vie (1783); SainteBeuve's Port-Royal (1878); Varin's Vérité sur les Arnaulds (1847).

Arnaut OF MAREUIL (in the diocese of Périgueux), Provençal troubadour (fl. c. 1150-1200). He frequented the court of Alazais (Adelaide), the wife of Roger II. (Taillefer), Count of Béziers, and there he devoted himself to the service of the countess, whom he celebrated in many songs. The audacity shown in his poems at length gave offence to the countess, who dismissed him from her service. As Alazais died in 1199 or 1200, and as Arnaut never refers to her death, he is supposed to have died before that date. Petrarch calls him the less famous Arnaut as compared with Daniel Arnaut; but this is not the verdict of modern criticism. About thirty of his poems have come down to us. The three epistles in verse, Saluts d'Amour, which he addressed to his lady, are among the best of their kind. See J. H. Smith's Troubadours at Home (1900).

Arnaut, DANIEL (end of 12th century), troubadour, born at Ribérac (Dordogne), France; lived a long time at the court of Richard I. of England. He was the inventor of the sestina, which was imitated by Dante. His works were published by Canello (1883).

Arndt, ERNST MORITZ (17691860), German poet and patriot, born in the island of Rügen. After travels in France and Germany he became (1805) professor of history at Greifswald. The son of a serf, he was instrumental in the abolition (1806) of serfdom by his work, Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Pommern (1803). In 1818 he exchanged his professorship of history at Greifswald for that at Bonn, from which, two years later, he was suspended for twenty years on account of his radical political opinions. Arndt is chiefly known by his patriotic poems and songs, which include Was ist des Deuschen Vaterland? Was blasen die Trompeten? and Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess. He is familiarly called 'Father Arndt' by the German people. He was a German chauvinist, detesting everybody and every thing French. The best edition of his works, by H. Meisner, in

Arne

6 vols., was published in 1892-5. See Meisner and Geerds's E. M. Arndt (1898).

Arne, THOMAS AUGUSTINE (1710-78), musical composer, was born in London. He was the first to introduce-in his Judith (1773) female voices into oratorio choruses. Besides oratorios and operas, Dr. Arne composed a large number of glees, catches, and canons; but he is best known by his musical settings of such songs as Rule Britannia-the finale of The Masque of Alfred (1840) — Where the Bee Sucks, Under the Greenwood Tree, and other Shakespearean songs.

Arneth, ALFRED RITTER VON (1819-97), Austrian historian and statesman, born at Vienna; was a member of the German Assembly of 1848-9 at Frankfort-on-theMain, and from 1869 a member of the Austrian Upper House. His principal work is Die Geschichte Maria Theresias (10 vols. 186379). Among other works are Prinz Eugen von Savoyen (3 vols. 1858-9), and the Letters of Maria Theresa and Joseph II., in 12 vols. (1866-91).

Arngrim ('The Learned'), otherwise ARNGRIMUR JONSSON (1568-1648), a student of the ancient literature of Iceland. As the priest of Mel, he wrote Brevis Commentarius de Islandia (1593); the Supplementum-never printed (1596) on the lives of the kings; the Crymogea (1610), a Constitutional History of Iceland; and Specimen Islandia, chiefly from the Landnamabok (1643). Vigfusson and Powell's Corpus Pocticum Boreale (1883).

See

Arnhem (anc. Arenacum), tn., cap. of prov. Gelderland, Netherlands; stands on the Lower Rhine, 35 m. by rail E. of Utrecht; is one of the most pleasant towns in the country. Paper, furniture, glass, printers' type, etc., manufactured. Pop. (1899) 56,

812.

are

Arnhem Bay, a bay indenting N.E. coast of Arnhem Land (q.v.). Arnhem Land, the most northerly part of the N. Territory of S. Australia, between the Gulf of Carpentaria and Anson Bay.

Arnica, the dried acrid and aromatic rootlets and rhizome of Arnica montana, native on the mountains of Middle and Southern Europe. The official preparation is a poisonous tincture which, diluted with water, serves as a remedy for bruises. Internally it has a stimulating effect on the alimentary canal. Its efficacy seems due to the alcohol in the tincture. Applied too freely to the skin, it may produce erysipelas.

Arnim, BETTINA VON (17881859), whose real name was Elisabeth; sister of Clemens Brentano and wife of Ludwig von Arnim, the German novelist and poet;

388

born at Frankfort; is noted for her alleged correspondence with Goethe, published in 1835, under the title of Goethe's Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde. See L. Geiger, Dichter und Frauen (1896).

Arnim, HARRY KARL EDUARD, COUNT VON (1824-81), Prussian diplomatist, was born in Pomeranía. In 1870 he was ambassador at Rome, and supported the anti-infallibilists at the Vatican Council. In 1871 he took part in the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Frankfort. In 1872 he became ambassador at Paris. Recalled, owing to his hostility to Bismarck, in 1874, he was sent to Constantinople. Charged with having stolen state documents in Paris, he was sentenced to imprisonment, and on appeal his sentence was increased. By living in exile he escaped the penalty. In 1875 he published a violent pamphlet against Bismarck, and was prosecuted for high treason and libel and sentenced in contumaciam to five years' penal servitude. He died at Nice. See Lowe's Prince Bismarck (new ed. 1898).

Arnim, JOHANN GEORG VON (1581-1641), general of the Thirty Years' war, was successively in the service of the Swedes, the Poles, the emperor, and the Saxons. Besieged Stralsund under Wallenstein (1628); co-operated with Gustavus Adolphus at Breitenfeld (1631); occupied Prague (1631); carried on negotiations with Wallenstein (1633-4); defeated the imperialist general Col loredo at Liegnitz (1634), and captured Zittau and Glogau; and in 1637 was arrested by the Swedes and carried to Stockholm, but contrived to escape in 1638. See Irmer's Hans Georg von Arnim (1894), and works cited s.v. WAL

LENSTEIN.

Arnim, LUDWIG ACHIM VON (1781-1831), German poet, born in Berlin. In 180, he met his lifelong friend, Clemens Brentano, in Heidelberg. Together they edited (1806-8) many old German songs (Des Knaben Wunderhornsee BRENTANO). Arnim married Brentano's sister, Bettina, in 1811. His first novel (Hollins Liebeleben, 1802) was an imitation of Goethe's Werther; the second (Ariel's Offenbarungen, 1804) was a poor specimen of the romantic school. His best work is Die Kronenwächter (1817), based on extensive historical research, and representing German life in the renaissance period. Arnim also wrote some unsuccessful plays. An edition of his works in 22 vols. was published by his wife in 18536. See Goethe und die Romantik II., in Schriften der Goethe Gesellschaft, vol. xiv. (1899).

Arno, unnavigable riv. (total length, 140 m.) of Italy, rises at

Arnold

an altitude of over 5,000 ft. in the Central Apennines, 23 m. E. by N. of Florence. As a mountain torrent it flows at first nearly due s. almost to Arezzo, then sweeps round to the N.W., and flows back nearly parallel to its former course as far as Pontassieve, where it turns to the w., and flowing through Florence enters the Mediterranean 7 m. below Pisa. This city stood originally on the seashore, but the Arno and Serchio together Lave brought down so much alluvium that the sea has been thrust back four and a half miles since the beginning of the Christian era.

Arnobius, also called AFER, rhetorician of Sicca in Numidia, wrote, about 295 A.D., an apology for Christianity (Adversus Nationes, lib. vii.). There is a good edition of his work by Reifferscheid (Vienna, 1875). English trans., vol. xix. of the AnteNicene Christian Library (1871).

Arnold, tn. and par., Nottinghamshire, 4 m. N.E. of Nottingham and m. from Daybrook, on railway from Derby to Grantham, in Sherwood Forest. Lace and hosiery manufactured. Pop. (1911) 11,147.

Arnold OF BRESCIA (c. 110055), an Italian monk, studied under Abélard at Paris. For an attack on the worldliness of the higher clergy he was cited by the bishop of Brescia before the second Lateran Council (1139) as a heretic, and banished. He took refuge with Abélard, but his preaching brought upon him the hostility of St. Bernard, who denounced him. He found refuge (1142) in Switzerland; but in 1145 he proceeded to Rome, and endeavored (1147) to establish a republic. In 1155, being expelled by the senate of Rome at the instigation of Pope Adrian Iv., he fled to Campania, but was brought to Rome, crucified, his body burnt and the ashes cast into the Tiber. See life, by Giesebrecht (1873), Bonghi (1885), and Hausrath (1892).

Arnold, ABRAHAM KERNS (1837-1901), American soldier, served with distinction as a lieu tenant and captain in the Civil War, and also as brig.-general in command of a division of the 7th Army Corps in Cuba during the war with Spain, was born at Bedford, Pa., and graduated at West Point in 1859. In the Civil War, he was made a captain for meritorious services at the battle of Gaines's Mill, and a major for his conduct at the battle of Todd's Tavern, Va. He was awarded a medal for conspicuous gallantry in a charge at Davenport Ridge, Va. (1864). In 1869 he published at N. Y. Notes on Horses for Cavalry Service.

Arnold, BENEDICT (1741

Arnold

In

1801), an American soldier, whose services are thrown into the background by his treason to his country, born in Norwich, Conn. For some years he was a druggist and bookseller at New Haven, Conn., also engaging in the West India trade. At the outbreak of the American Revolution he raised a militia company (of which he became captain) for service against the British. As colonel he assisted in the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point (May 10-12, 1775), which had been undertaken independently by Ethan Allen and himself. He then commanded the disastrous Kennebec Expedition,' sent out from Cambridge to assist in the capture of Canada, reaching Quebec after manifold difficulties and being wounded in the unsuccessful attack, under Montgomery, on that city (Dec. 31, 1775). On Jan. 10, 1776, he became a brigadier-general, and on Oct. 11, 1776, commanded the flotilla of small vessels which was defeated by a greatly superior British naval force near Valcour Island on Lake Champlain. Feb., 1777, he was deeply affronted by the unjust promotion over his head, by Congress, of five of his inferior officers to be major-generals. In this he was the victim of enmities and jealousies, which he was always arousing, but soon afterward his repulse of a British force at Ridgefield, Conn., compelled recognition, and he was raised in actual, though not in relative, rank, being made a major-general on Feb. 17, 1777. He took a conspicuous part, under Gen. Gates, in the first and second battles of Saratoga, though in the second (in which he was severely wounded), having quarrelled with Gates, he was nominally without command. He was afterward (1778-9) in command in Philadelphia, after the evacuation of that city by the British; there, as everywhere, he aroused enmities, was accused of disloyalty, to which charge his marriage to Miss Margaret Shippen, a member of a loyalist family, lent color, was tried by court-martial on charges which apparently had little basis, and was found guilty of two minor offences, for which Washington, directed by the court, mildly reprimanded him (Jan., 1780). Filled with a sense of wrong and longing for revenge, he entered into treasonable negotiations with the British, and, obtaining from Washington the command of the important fortification of West Point, offered to betray it into the hands of Gen. Henry Clinton, the British commander, then in New York. The loss of West Point would have been an almost irreparable

389

one to the Americans, but the plot was discovered through the capture (Sept. 23, 1780) of Major John André (q.v.), who had been sent by Clinton to confer with Arnold. Arnold, informed of the capture by a guileless subordinate, escaped to New York, received about £6,300 as an indemnity for property lost, and as brigadiergeneral in the British army led a pillaging expedition into Virginia and commanded the British force which burned New London, Conn. (Sept., 1781), after having overpowered the garrison of Fort Griswold (Groton), and massacred most of the survivors. In Dec., 1781, he went to England, where he lived during most of the time until his death, being everywhere treated with contempt, and being in his last years afflicted with melancholia. Four of his sons served in the British army, and one of them, James Robertson Arnold, attained distinction as a soldier. The best biography is by I. N. Arnold (1880); see also that by Sparks (1838), Codman, Arnold's Expedition to Quebec (1901), J. H. Smith's Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec (1903), and Abbott's The Crisis of the Revolution (1899).

Arnold, SIR EDWIN (18321904), English poet, born at Gravesend. For a poem on The Feast of Belshazzar he gained the Newdigate prize (1853). He was principal of the Government Sanskrit College at Poona (1856-61). After his return to England he was employed on the editorial staff of the Daily Telegraph. His works include Poems (1853); Hero and Leander (1874); The Indian Song of Songs (1875); Light of Asia (1879), an epic on the life and work of Buddha, which has gone through numerous editions; Indian Poetry (1881); Pearls of the Faith (1883); With Sa'di in the Garden (1888); The Light of the World (1891); Seas and Lands (1891); and Adzuma, a Japanese Tragedy (1893).

Arnold, GEORGE (1834-65), American author and poet, was born in New York City. His McArone Papers (1860, et seq.) were published in Vanity Fair. His poems were edited by William Winter, with a Memoir (1870, 1889).

Arnold, HANS (pseudonym of BABETTE VON BÜLOW), German author, was born in Warmbrunn in 1850. Her tales, mostly published under the title of Novellen (1881-1903), treat mainly of the small vexations and worries of life. Among her best works are Geburtstagsfreuden (1884) and Aprilwetter (1893).

Arnold, ISAAC NEWTON (181584). American legislator and abolitionist, was born at Hart

Arnold

wich, N. Y. He was intimate with Abraham Lincoln, of whom he wrote an excellent biography (1866), and also wrote a good biography of Benedict Arnold. He was a Republican representative from Illinois to the 37th and 38th Congresses, and was sixth auditor of the U. S. Treasury in 1865-66.

Arnold, LEWIS G. (1815-71), American brigadier-general, was born in N. J., and graduated in 1837 at West Point. He served throughout the Mexican War, and was advanced to the rank of major. He also had a highly honorable record in the Civil War, particularly in the defence of Fort Pickens. As brig.-general of volunteers, he subsequently commanded the Union forces in Florida, and at New Orleans and Algiers, La.

Arnold, MATTHEW (1822-88), poet, critic, and educationist, was the eldest son of Thomas Arnold, headmaster of Rugby. He was born at Laleham, Middlesex. In 1847 he became private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, by whom he was appointed in 1851 to a lay inspectorship of schools. On three occasions he drew up valuable reports of continental systems of education. Two of them have been reprinted as The Popular Education of France (1861) and Schools and Universities on the Continent (1868). Meanwhile Arnold steadily devoted his leisure to literature, and achieved a twofold reputation as poet and critic. From 1857 to 1867 he was regius professor of poetry at Oxford. His home was for a time in London, then at Harrow, and finally, from 1873, at Cobham, Surrey. In 1883, and again in 1886, he undertook lecturing tours in America. In 1885 he resigned his inspectorship. He died suddenly at Liverpool.

Matthew Arnold's literary work presents three phases. The ten or twelve years following his Oxford career were mainly devoted to poetry. Two early volumesThe Strayed Reveller (1849) and Empedocles upon Etna (1852)— were anonymously issued under the initial A.' The best of their contents were reprinted in the Poems of 1853, on the title-page of which the author's name appeared, and to which he added such masterpieces as Sohrab and Rustum (a narrative poem in the Homeric vein) and The Scholar Gipsy. A second series of Poems appeared in 1855, Merope (a tragedy in the Greek manner) in 1858, and New Poems in 1867.

Hardly less remarkable than the Poems of 1853 was the prefacedwelling on the importance of structure and unity in poetry-that accompanied them. Although