scenes are not linked together; the incidents are not prepared. Now Seneca could not have been ignorant of the common rules of tragedy, known universally in his day; and if he has not attended to them, we are forced to conclude it is with intention that he has done so. His tragedies were written to be read, and they were read with great applause. They have not the rudest attempts at dramatic delineation. A story is chosen, always a well-known one, on which to string descriptions, declamations, and epigrams. The dialogue is the most appropriate form for such exhibitions, and consequently he has told his story in dialogue. This seems to us the whole matter. Considered in this point of view, they possess great merits of a certain order. Their delineations are uniformly Stoical; their sentiments elaborated from philosophy, with very little poetry in them; their epigrams admirable. Seneca was not a poet. There was no poetry possible at his time, and if it had been, Seneca's mind was of a reflective, not of an emotive cast. And although most of the poetry in these tragedies is critical, conscious, and reflective- although we seldom see that spontaneity of thought and feeling which in true poets springs up from the simplest reflection-yet we cannot but be struck with certain passages of unquestioned power and freshness both of thought and expression. There is a magnificent flash of dramatic feeling and expression in his 'Edipus,' which is worthy of Sophocles or Shakspere, and not borrowed from the former, as so many of his beauties were. It is when Edipus has put out his own eyes, on learning that his wife Jocasta was also his mother (Jocasta has killed herself, and her corpse is before him on the ground), and determining to wander, blind as he is, from Thebes, the birthplace of his woes, he makes two steps in advance, but arrests himself for fear of stumbling against his mother: "Siste, ne in matrem incidas." This is very pathetic, and shows an intensity of dramatic consciousness which we find nowhere else in Seneca. It is in his 'Medea' that the celebrated prediction occurs which is generally applied to the discovery of America; with what critical propriety, any one may judge who will take the trouble of turning to it. (Venient annis,' &c.) The tragedies of Seneca were translated into English by Jasper Heywood, son of the epigrammatist; by Alexander Neyle, by John Studely, by Thomas Nuce, and by Thomas Newton; and there appeared a complete edition in 1581, entitled 'Seneca his Tenne Tragedies, translated into English, Mercurii nutrices hora' (Collier, Hist. Dram. Poet.,' iii., p. 14); but the translators by no means adhered to the original, interpolating lines, speeches, and chorusses, as they thought fit. The editions of Seneca are very numerous. The most recent edition of all his works is that of C. F. Fickert, 3 vols. 8vo, Lips., 184245; the Bipont, 1809, and that of Ruhkopf, Lips., 1797-1811, are each in 5 vols. 8vo. SENEFELDER or SENNEFELDER, ALOIS, the son of a performer at the Theatre Royal, Munich, was born in the year 1771. The history of this persevering inventor, and of the difficulties with which he had to struggle in bringing the art of lithography into successful and profitable operation, supplies an interesting illustration of the power of genius to overcome the most adverse circumstances. When young, Senefelder was inclined to follow the profession of his father, who preferred placing him at the University of Ingolstadt, where he devoted himself to the study of jurisprudence, occasionally indulging his predilection for the stage by performing at private theatres, and by employing his leisure time in dramatic composition. In 1789 he wrote a comedy, called 'Die Mädchenkenner,' which was published, and by which he cleared fifty florins. Losing his father soon after, he was compelled from want of pecuniary means to discontinue his studies; and he tried for some time to devote himself to the stage. Disappointed in his hopes of success as a performer, he resolved to try his fortune as an author, and published a second play, which did not pay his expenses. While this was passing through the press, Senefelder made himself acquainted with the process of printing, and became desirous of procuring the necessary apparatus for printing his own works. Being too poor to gratify this desire, he endeavoured to discover some other mode of printing, but was defeated in several plans by want of means. One of the projects he abandoned from this cause was a kind of stereotyping. He then tried etching on copper, but found difficulties arising from his want of practical knowledge, and still more from the expense of the copper-plates, which he ground and polished after using, to make them available for more than one operation. To diminish this difficulty, he used a piece of fine Kellheim stone for his exercises in writing backwards; and subsequently tried printing from it instead of copper, though without much success. Of this use of stone, merely as a substitute for copper, Senefelder disclaims the invention; but his experiments upon it were important, as leading to the discovery of chemical lithography. The next step towards this discovery was occasioned by an incident which curiously illustrates the situation of the needy inventor. Being unacquainted with the composition, used by engravers for covering defective places in their etching ground, or enabling them to rectify mistakes, he had invented a kind of chemical ink for the purpose, consisting of wax, soap, and lampblack. One day, when he had polished a stone-plate for etching, his mother entered the room, requesting him to write a bill for the washerwoman, who was waiting for the linen. He found that he had not even a slip of paper for the purpose, having used all in taking proof-impressions, and that the inkstand was dry; and as the matter was urgent, he wrote the list on the prepared stone with his chemical ink, intending to copy it at leisure. Some time afterwards, when about to clean off this writing, it occurred to him that, by the appli cation of aquafortis and water, he might etch the stone so as to leave the writing in sufficient relief for printing from. The experiment succeeded; and as soon as he had brought this new invention into a practical form, he applied himself to the means of bringing it into operation, so as to gain a livelihood by it. Being unable otherwise to raise the necessary capital for the con struction of a press, the purchase of stones, paper, &c., Senefelder enlisted as a private in the artillery, as substitute for a friend, who promised him a premium of two hundred florins, with which he hoped to procure the means for carrying on his operations in his leisure hours, until he could procure his discharge. With these views he went to Ingolstadt with a party of recruits. But he was doomed to disappointment; for it was discovered that he was not a native of Bavaria, and therefore could rot serve without a special licence. While at Ingolstadt, he was led to conceive the peculiar fitness of his new process for printing music; and he suggested it to a musician of the Elector's band, named Gleissner, who was preparing some music for publication. In connection with this person a few works were published, which proved the capabilities of the art. The Elector Charles Theodore sent a present of a hundred florins to the printers, and promised an exclusive privilege for the exercise of their art; but the Electoral Academy of Sciences, before which Senefelder laid a copy of the first work, with an account of the process, acted very differently. He had mentioned the small cost of the press as an illustration of the economy of his invention, and was grievously disappointed when, instead of an honourable mention in the Transac tions of the Society, he received a present of twelve florins, with an intimation from the vice-president that his memoir had been favourably received; and that, as the expense of the press did not, according to his own statement, exceed six florins, he hoped a double compensation would satisfy his expectations. The promising aspect of affairs at this time, about 1796, was clouded by the difficulty of constructing a more efficient press than had been used in the first operations. A rolling-press had been used in the first instance; but owing to a circumstance which escaped the notice of Senefelder, he failed in his attempt to make a new one. He there. fore made a machine, in which the pressure was obtained by a stone of three hundred pounds weight falling from a height of ten feet; a plan which produced good prints, but broke the stones after a few impressions. Having a narrow escape from being killed by the falling stone in this press, Senefelder abandoned it, and constructed another on a different principle. Such obstacles, and the difficulty of finding suitable persons to employ in the new process, brought the establishment into discredit, and prevented the proprietors from obtaining their expected exclusive privilege during the life of Charles Theodore. The lithographic printing here alluded to appears to have been mechanical, as Senefelder informs us that he discovered chemical printing-the art which has since attained so high a degree of excel fence and utility-in 1798. Some of the earliest specimens of the art, as applied to pictorial subjects, were executed under the superintendence of the Rev. Mr. Steiner, director of the Royal School establishments. In 1799 Senefelder obtained an exclusive privilege for Bavaria for fifteen years, and carried on a considerable business, employing his two brothers and two apprentices. As the process was no longer kept secret, many persons visited the offices, among whom was Mr. André of Offenbach. With this gentleman Senefelder entered into partnership, and commenced arrangements for obtaining patents and establishing presses in Vienna, London, Paris, and Berlin. While engaged in this project, he visited London, but without succeeding in his object. Unfortunate circumstances led to a hasty dissolution of this promising partnership, in 1800. For some time afterwards, Mr. Von Hartl, who is described as imperial court agent, took an active part in promoting the invention, the application of which to cottonprinting then excited much attention. A fair prospect which now appeared opening for Senefelder was destroyed by the derangement in the cotton manufacture caused by the suspension of commercial intercourse between England and the Continent, by Bonaparte; and some improvements which he had effected in calico-printing became useless to him by being divulged by a person employed, before a patent was secured for them. In 1806 an extensive lithographic establishment was formed at Munich, by Senefelder, in connection with Baron Aretin and others. This partnership lasted about four years, during which period a great variety of works were executed; some of them for the government. Several other lithographic estab lishments were also in successful operation in 1809, when Senefelder obtained an engagement which rewarded him for the vicissitudes of the early part of his career, and placed him in comfortable circumstances for the remainder of his life. A lithographic office was formed about that time for printing the plans of a new survey of the kingdom, of which a great number were required. Owing to an intrigue, the superintendence of this work was not, in the first instance, given to Senefelder; but in October 1809, he was appointed to the office of inspector of the Royal Lithographic Establishment, with a salary of fifteen hundred florins per annum, and with permission to carry on his private business also. The subsequent improvements effected by Senefelder were attributed by himself to the ease and independence which this honourable engagement afforded. As early as 1809 Senefelder had commenced a collection of specimens to illustrate an account of his invention; but circumstances impeded the completion of the work, which might probably never have been finished but for the exertions of Mr. Von Schlichtegroll, director of the Royal Academy of Munich, who, in 1816 and 1817, published several letters on the subject, urging the publication of a work that should perpetuate the memory of the invention, and set at rest the erroneous rumours then prevalent on the subject. Senefelder therefore wrote and published an account of his inventions and discoveries, with a preface by Von Schlichtegroll, and a dedication to the king of Bavaria. This work was shortly translated both into French and Euglish, the latter in 1819, in a quarto volume, entitled 'A Complete Course of Lithography,' &c. It has no pretension to literary merit, but cannot fail to prove interesting as a simple and circumstantial record of the experiments and difficulties attending the invention of a highly important art. The illustrations of various styles, some of which are curious, add to the value of the work, to which is prefixed a portrait of Senefelder. The rapid extension of lithography, even before the publishing of this book, must have been highly gratifying to the inventor, who observed on this subject, "I esteem myself happy in seeing, in my own lifetime, the value of my invention so universally appreciated; and in having myself been able to attain in it a degree of perfection which, in a thousand other inventions, has not been reached till long after the death of the first inventor." In 1819 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., in London, voted their gold medal to Senefelder, as the inventor of lithography. Senefelder married about the time of his appointment to the office in which, we believe, he spent the remainder of his life. He died at Munich, February 26, 1884, in his sixty-third year. SENNERTUS, DANIEL, was born at Breslau in 1572. In 1601 he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Würtemberg, and in the following year was elected professor there. He died of the plague in 1637. During his life, and for many years after, Sennertus enjoyed the highest possible reputation as a learned and skilful physician. His works, which are very numerous and long, prove him to have been a skilful compiler from those of others. He was the first to endeavour to reconcile the then modern doctrines of Paracelsus with the ancient ones of Galen, which they had well nigh overturned; and he appears to have been much less credulous than most of his contemporaries on the subjects of alchemy, the universal remedy, and others of the like kind. The whole works of Sennertus were published in folio at Venice in 1645, and in subsequent years at Paris and Lyon. that principle to which the "diagonal bracing" system owes its strength, was original with his father at the time of its construction, that is about the year 1786. Sir Robert Seppings introduced other improvements into our system of naval architecture. The admiralty presented him with 1000l. as a reward for his simple yet most useful invention of an improved block for supporting vessels, by which their keels and lower timbers were much more easily and promptly examined and repaired. It was produced while he filled the office of master-shipwright assistant in Plymouth dockyard, and is described in the Transactions of the Society of Arts' vol. xxii. p. 275-292, the Society having awarded him their gold medal for it in the year 1804. His plan for lifting masts out of the steps, which superseded the employment of sheer hulks for that purpose, has been the means of saving much expense and labour. His new mode of framing ships has led to a much more extensive use of short and small timbers, which were formerly of little value; but the most valuable of all the reforms of construction for which the navy of England is indebted to him was the substitution of round for flat sterns, which afford increased strength to the framework of the ship, greater protection against pooping in heavy seas, an almost equal power of anchoring by the stern and by the bow, a more secure and effective position for the rudder, and a stout platform for a powerful battery, embracing a sweep of more than 180°. This capital improve ment was strenously opposed by many distinguished naval officers, who regretted the loss of those magnificent cabins, which were better suited for their purposes of state than of service, but the good sense of less prejudiced judges happily prevailed, and secured for our ships of war an additional claim upon the respect of our enemies. The select committee on finance of the House of Commons on several occasions bore testimony to his official merits, and he received the marked approbation of both houses of parliament. Foreign nations were not tardy in acknowledging the value of the improvements in ship-building originated by Sir R. Seppings, and their author received many substantial proofs of their sense of his merits; the Emperor Alexander of Russia, and the kings of Denmark and Holland, presented him with memorials of their appreciation of what he had effected. We may safely affirm, that in the national record of the great benefactors of their country, there are few names which will deserve more grateful commemoration than that of the object of this notice. In addition to the papers on the diagonal bracing already alluded to, Sir R. Seppings communicated to the Royal Society a paper On a new principle of constructing ships in the mer cantile navy,' which was inserted in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' for 1820. Dr. Young's paper, also referred to above, though not communicated to the Royal Society till 1814, had been presented in the form of a report to the Board of Admiralty in 1811. It will be found reprinted in Dr. Peacock's edition of the Miscellaneous Works' of Young, (vol. i. p. 535-562) together with the official correspondence relative to it between the latter and Sir J. Barrow. Sir R. Seppings was an honorary member of the Cambridge University Philosophical Society, and a corresponding member of the Philosophical Society of Rotterdam. It had been proposed by the University of Oxford to confer upon him the honorary degree of D.C.L., at the commemoration of 1836, but severe indisposition compelled him to decline it. He died at his house at Taunton in Somersetshire, on the 25th of April 1840, aged seventytwo, leaving several children; his wife's decease had taken place a few years before. SEPPINGS, SIR ROBERT, F.R.S. the distinguised naval architect, received his education as a shipwright under Sir John Henslow, surveyor of the navy, and continued in connection with the important service of our dock-yards during a period of fifty years. He was the author of many improvements of the first order in our naval architecture, including the system of diagonal bracing and trussing, which he devised while he was master shipwright of Chatham Dockyard. This system formed the subject of two memorable papers in the 'Philosophical Transactions' of the Royal Society, for the years 1814 and 1818, one by Sir R. Seppings in each of those years, and one by the celebrated Dr. T. Young, For. Sec. R. S. [YOUNG, THOMAS.] in the former, SEPULVEDA, JUAN GINE'S DE, an eminent Spanish scholar and and which attracted an unusual amount of public attention. The great historian, was born at Pozoblanco near Cordova, in 1490. After pur principle of this method was such an arrangement of the principal suing his studies, first in Cordova and then at the university of timbers as would oppose a powerful mechanical action to every change Alcalá, he embarked for Italy in June, in 1515, and reached Bologna, of position of the ribs and other timbers in every part of the ship, where he obtained admission into the college founded by Cardinal thus firmly compacting together the entire fabric, and preventing that Albornoz. There he made rapid progress in theology and the learned perpetual racking of beams and working of joints which in the ancient languages under the guidance of the celebrated Pomponazzi (Peter). system of ship-building, produced hogging, creaking, leakage, and translated part of Aristotle, and wrote the life of Cardinal Albornoz: rapid decay; and filling up likewise every vacuity between the De Vita et Rebus Gestis Egidii Cardinalis Albornotii,' lib. iii, fol., timbers, which are occasionally the unavoidable receptacles for Rome, 1521. Sepulveda afterwards went to Rome, where he found a foul air, filth, vermin, and various other sources of rottenness and protector in Cardinal Carpi, who gave him a lodging in his palace. disease. These important improvements, though opposed to the Thence he passed to Naples, where he assisted Cardinal Caetano in inveterate prejudices of the older shipwrights, a body of men who revising the Greek text of the New Testament. In 1529 Sepulveda have not sufficiently valued and understood, in this country at least, returned to Rome and entered the service of Cardinal Quiñones; but the just principles of mechanical action, in the practical operation of in 1536, having been appointed chaplain and historiographer to ship-building, were universally adopted in the navy under the Charles V., he quitted Italy and arrived in Spain, where he was enlightened administration of Mr. Charles York, and the powerful entrusted with the education of the eldest son of that emperor, afteradvocacy of Sir John Barrow in the 'Quarterly Review;' and the merit wards Philip II. About this time, Bartholomé de las Casas, bishop of of their author was acknowledged by his appointment as surveyor of Chiapa, so celebrated for his endeavours to alleviate the sufferings of the navy, and by the award of the Copley Medal of the Royal Society, the Indians, was pleading their cause at court with all the zeal and of which he became a Fellow on the 10th of November 1814. fervour of a true philanthropist. Sepulveda, having been prevailed While the claims of Sir R. Seppings to the invention of the system upon by the enemies of Las Casas to refute his arguments, wrote a of diagonal bracing in naval architecture is indubitable, it may not be book, entitled 'Democrates Secundus, seu de Justis Belli Causis,' &c., out of place to record here the following point of information. It can in which he undertook to prove that the wars of the Spaniards in be no derogation to the merits of discoverers or inventors to show America were just, and founded on their right to subdue the inhabithat their progress is a portion of the general advance of the human tants of a world discovered by them; that it was the duty of the mind. Sir John F. W. Herschel has stated in a letter to Mr. C. R. Americans to submit to be governed by the Spaniards on account of Weld, Assist. Sec., R.S., inserted in the History of the Royal Society' their superior knowledge and wisdom; and that if they would not by the latter, that he is "disposed to think that the system of triangular voluntarily acquiesce in the Spanish yoke, they might and ought to arrangement adopted by Sir W. Herschel in the wood-work of his great be compelled to do so by force of arms. He further declared that his telescope being a perfect system of diagonal bracing," or rather | only object in writing that work was to establish the rights of the kings 407 ་ SERAPION. of Castile and Leon over America. This work however was never printed, for when Sepulveda applied to the Royal Council for permission to print it, it was refused, and the book itself was condemned by the universities of Alcalá and Salamanca, to which the case was afterwards referred. Upon this Sepulveda wrote his 'Apologia pro Libro de Justis Belli Causis contra Îndos suscepti,' which appeared at Rome, 8vo, 1550: but the edition was seized by order of Charles V., and but few copies were saved. Sepulveda died in 1573, at the age of eighty-three. Sepulveda was a man of great learning. Erasmus speaks of him in the Ciceronianus,' and classes him among the best writers of his time. Besides his Latin translation of part of Aristotle, which appeared at Paris, fol., 1531, and that of the Commentary of Alexander of Aphrodisias upon the same, which he had previously printed at Rome, fol., 1527, Sepulveda left the following works:- De Fato et Libero Arbitrio Libri Tres,' 4to, Rome, 1526, being a refutation of Luther's opinions on fate; Ad Carolum V. Cohortatio ut factâ cum omnibus Christianis Pace, Bellum suscipiat in Turcas,' 4to, Bolonia, 1529; Antapologia pro Alberto Pio in Erasmum,' 4to, Paris, 1531 (this was written in defence of Cardinal Carpi); 'De Ritu Nuptiarum et Dispensatione Libri Tres,' 4to, Rome, 1531, and London, 1553; 'De Convenientia Militaris Disciplinæ cum Christiana Religione.' In this work, written in the form of a dialogue, and dedicated to the celebrated Duke of Alba, the author undertakes to prove that the profession of arms is in harmony with the doctrines of Christianity. It was translated into Spanish by Barba, 4to, Sev., 1541. 'De Appetenda Gloria;' 'De Ratione dicendi Testimonium in Causis Occultorum Criminum,' 4to, Vallad., 1538; De Regno et Regis Officio,' 8vo, Lerida, 1571. A history of the reign of Charles V., another of that of Philip II., and a narrative of the conquests of the Spaniards in Mexico, all three works in Latin, are still inedited. Sepulveda's works were collected and published, with the exception only of his translations, at Cologne in 1602. They have since been reprinted, in 1780, at Madrid, by the Royal Academy of History, in four volumes, folio, with a portrait of the author and an account of his life and writings. There is another Spanish writer named SEPULVEDA LORENZO, who flourished about the same time, and gained considerable reputation as a writer of romances. He published Romances sacados de Historias Antiguas,' 8vo, Antw., 1551 and 1580; Romances sacados de la Historia de España del Rey Don Alonso,' 8vo, Medina, 1562; 8vo, Antw., 1580; Otros Romances sacados de la Historia y de los Quarenta Cantos de Alonso de Fuentes,' 12mo, Burgos, 1579; Cancionero de Romances,' 12mo, Vallad., 1577. · SERA'PION (Zepaπíwv), an eminent physician of Alexandria, in the 3rd century B.C., who belonged to the sect of the Empirici, and who so much extended and improved the system of Philinus, that the invention of it is by some authors attributed to him. (Celsus, 'De Medic.,' lib. i., præfat.) Dr. Mead, in his 'Dissert. de Numis quibusdam à Smyrnæis in Medicorum Honorem cusis' (p. 51), believes that he was a pupil of Erasistratus, because his name appears upon a medal discovered at Smyrna, and because the followers of that celebrated anatomist lived in that town; but as the Empress Eudocia (Violar. apud Villoison, 'Anecd. Græc.,' tom. i., p. 381) mentions a rhetorician of Ælia Capitolina (Jerusalem) in Palestine who bore the same name, one would have quite as much right (says Sprengel) to reckon Serapion among the rhetoricians, if Hadrian, the founder of the town of Elia, had not lived much later than the time of Serapion. Serapion wrote against Hippocrates with much vehemence, and occupied himself almost exclusively with researches into the nature of drugs. (Galen, De Subfigur Empiric.,' cap. 13, p. 68, ed. Bas.) Cœlius Aurelianus ('De Morb. Acut.,' lib. ii., cap. 6, p. 84) quotes his book 'Ad Sectas,' finds fault with the severe remedies that he prescribed in Angina Pectoris, and reproaches him with having neglected dietetics. (Ibid.,' lib. iii., cap. 4, p. 195.) One may presume that in those early times a great many superstitious remedies were used for epilepsy; for Serapion, besides castoreum, recommended also the 'brain of the camel,' the rennet of the sea-calf, πuтià púкns, the excrements of the crocodile, the heart of the hare, the blood of the tortoise, and the testicles of the wild boar. (Coel. Aurel., 'De Morb. Chron.,' lib. i., cap. 4, p. 322.) Several authors make mention of some other preparations and antidotes, which bear his name, and which are scarcely worth more than those above mentioned. (Celsus, 'De Medic.,' lib. v., cap. 28, sect. 17, p. 307; Aëtius, tetrab. ii., serm. ii., cap. 96, col. 296; Nicolaus Myrepsus, Antidot.,' sect. i, cap. 66, col. 375.) SERAPION, a Syrian physician, called by Wüstenfeld ('Gesch. der Arab. Aerzte'), YAHIA IBN SERAPION BEN IBRAHIM, and commonly called Serapion Senior, to distinguish him from another physician of the same name, with whom he is sometimes confounded. Nothing is known of the events of his life, and the century in which he lived is only to be calculated from his being quoted by Rhazes, who died probably A.H. 320 (A.D. 932). We are told by the anonymous author of the Arab. Philosoph. Biblioth.,' quoted by Casiri (Biblioth. Arabico-Hisp. Escur.,' tom. i., p. 261), that "duo de Re Medica edidit volumina, id est Collectionem Magnam Libris XII., et Collectionem Parvam Libris VII. comprehensam, utramque Syriacè quam in Arabicum Sermonem convertere Musa Ben Abrahim Alhodaithi, et Ben Bahlul." We possess two works that bear his name; one still in SERAPION. 408 manuscript, called 'Aphorismi Magni Momenti de Medicina Practica (Uri, 'Catal. Codd. MSS. Orient., Biblioth. Bodl.,' No. 598); the other, entitled 'Kunnásh' (a word probably derived from a Syrian one, which means to collect), has been translated into Latin, and published under the various names, 'Pandecta,' Aggregator,' 'Breviarium,' Practica,' and 'Therapeutica Methodus.' Dr. Russell (Append. to Nat. Hist. of Aleppo') says that the only manuscript of this work that he had seen in the European catalogues was that of the Escurial (Cod. 814), which however contains only a small part of it; and that he had never met with any of this author's works in the East. The object of the work is to collect and put together in an abridged form the opinions of the Greek and Arabic physicians concerning diseases and their treatment. "As Haly Abbas (Lib. Reg.,' Prol.) remarks," says Mr. Adams (Appendix to Barker's ed. of Lempriere, London, 1838), "he treats of the cure of diseases solely as practicable by medicine and diet, and has entirely omitted hygiene and operative surgery. The list of the complaints of which he treats is far less complete than those of Rhases, Haly, and Avicenna, and in particular it is remarkable that he makes no mention of elephantiasis, aneurism, and diseases of the chest and genital organs; his description of Small-Pox, as further stated by Haly, is very incomplete." Dr. Freind remarks (Hist. of Physic,' vol. ii., p. 42), that he "often transcribes out of Alexander Trallianus, an author with whom few of the other Arabic writers seem to have been much acquainted." A fuller account of Serapion's medical opinions may be seen in Freind (loc. cit.), Haller ('Biblioth. Med. Pract.,' tom. i., p. 443), and Sprengel (‘Hist. de la Med.,' tom. ii., p. 277). The first edition of his work mentioned by Choulant (Handbuch der Bücherkunde für die Aeltere Medicin') is the translation by Gerardus Cremonensis, printed in black letter in double columns, folio, Venet., 1479, by Rainaldus Noviomagensis Alemannus, with the title, Jo. fil. Serapionis Opera, s. Breviarium etc. et (Serapionis Junioris) Liber Aggregatus in Medicinis Simplicibus ex transl. Sim. Januensis interprete Abraam Judæo Tortuosiensi, etc.' The last edition mentioned by Choulant is a reprint of the translation of Andreas Alpagus (which was first published in folio, Ferrar., 1488), Venet., folio, 1550, with the title, Jo. fil. Serapionis Practica,' &c., and with the work of the younger Serapion in the same volume. Albanus Torinus published an edition (Basil., folio, 1543), with the title, ‘Jani Damasceni Therapeutica Methodi Lib. VII.,' &c., which alteration of the author's name has increased the confusion that already existed respecting him. An extract from his work is printed in Fernel's Collection of the Greek, Latin, and Arabic writers 'De Febribus,' Venet., fol., 1576. SERAPION, commonly called Serapion Junior, to distinguish him from the preceding, an Arabian physician of whom nothing is known. He must certainly have lived after Ibn Wafid (commonly called Albengnefit or Abenguefit), since he quotes him, and as that author died A.H. 460 (A.D. 1068), Serapion may perhaps be placed at the end of the 5th century after the Hegira, or the 11th after Christ. There remains a work by him, 'De Simplicibus Medicamentis,' of which there is an Arabic manuscript in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (Uri, Catal. MSS. Orient.,' No. 597), but which has only been published in a Latin translation. "This is," says Mr. Adams (Appendix to Barker's Lempriere, London, 1838), one of the most important works of Arabic medical literature, and contains a useful compendium of all the most interesting information on this head in the writings of Dioscorides and Galen, with some additional remarks by himself and the older Arabic authorities; the most original part of it is the 'Introduction,' in which he classifies substances according to their medicinal properties, and gives an ingenious dissertation on their actions. On the whole, he has made very few additions to the articles in the Materia Medica of the Greeks, and indeed sometimes gives to his Grecian masters credit for the discovery of certain medicinal substances, for which it would rather appear that we are indebted to his countrymen. Thus, in his chapter on Serina, he quotes Paulus Ægineta, but seemingly by mistake, for no account of this purgative is now to be found in the works of the latter. Where all is mostly unexceptionable, and there is nothing remarkably original, it is difficult to point out any subject which it handled in a more interesting manner than the others. I would refer however to his account of squills: he says that the Vinum scilliticum is given as a laxative in fevers, and in dropsy as a diuretic, to remedy indigestion, for jaundice and 'tormina of the belly, for an old cough, asthma, and spitting of blood, and for cleansing the breast of gross humours; and forbids the use of it when there is an ulcer in an internal organ." There are however abundant proofs of his credulity and love of the marvellous in his accounts of the bezoar (cap. 396, p. 188, a.), diamond (cap. 391, p. 187, b.), asphaltus (cap. 177, p. 147, a.), &c. "Amber," says he (cap. 196, p. 150), "grows in the sea like mushrooms on land. In China there are some persons solely engaged in fishing for this substance. That which floats on the sea is swallowed by the whale, and quickly causes its death. When the animal's body is opened, the best amber is found near the vertebral column, and the worst in the stomach." The first edition of this work mentioned by Choulan ('Handbuch der Bücherkunde für die Aeltere Medicin') was published at Milan, folio, 1473, in black letter, with the title Liber Serapionis aggregatus in Medicinis Simplicibus, translatio Simonis Januensis interprete Abraham Judæo Tortuosiensi de Arabico in Latinum.' The last edition mentioned by him was published at Venice, folio, 1552, with the title 'Serapion de Simplic. Medicam. Historia Libri VII., Nicol. Mutono interprete.' It has been often printed in the same volume with the work of the elder Serapion, as for a long time they were supposed to be written by the same person. SERE'NUS, AULUS SEPTIMIUS, a Roman poet. Some of the ancients call him merely Serenus, and others merely Septimius; and from this circumstance it has been inferred by some modern scholars that these two names belong to two individuals (Wernsdorf, Poet. Lat. Min.,' ii., p. 247, &c.); but Marius Victorinus, Terentianus Maurus, and Sidonius Apollinaris, frequently call him by his two names, Sep. timius Serenus, and therefore decide the question. He was a contemporary of Terentianus Maurus and of Martial (Epigr.,' i. 87), and must consequently have lived in or shortly after the reign of Vespasian. Of the circumstances of his life nothing is known with certainty. Some modern scholars have supposed that the fifth poem in the fourth book of the 'Sylva' of Statius is addressed to Septimius Serenus, as all that is mentioned of the person addressed in that poem appears to be just what might be expected in a poet like Serenus: but the manuscript reading in Statius is not Serenus, but Severus; and consequently the whole biography of Serenus, which has been made up out of that poem, is uncertain in the highest degree. The only thing we know of him is, that he was an extreme admirer of country life; for it is the country with all its charms that forms the subject of his poems, which he published under the title of 'Opuscula Ruralia.' Of these poems only a few fragments have been preserved by the ancient grammarians. They are however sufficient to show that Serenus was a lyric poet of very great talents. The poem called Moretum,' which has frequently been printed together with the works of Virgil, is ascribed by Wernsdorf to Serenus; and Copa,' another work of the same kind, has likewise been attributed to Serenus by some modern scholars. Terentianus Maurus ('De Metris,' p. 2423, Putsch.) mentions another poem of Serenus, which is called 'Falisca,' and which probably contained a description of the country life in the district of the Faliscans. In this poem he used a peculiar kind of verse, consisting of three dactyls and one pyrrhic; and this metre is by Terentianus called 'metrum Faliscum,' and the poet himself Faliscus. Compare the Essay' of Wernsdorf on Serenus, in his 'Poet. Lat. "Inscribis chartæ, quod dicitur ABRACADABRA, ABRACADABRA ABRACADAB ABRACADA ABRACAD ABRACA A BRAC ABRA ABR Glossar. Med. et Inf. Latin., ed. Paris, 1840; Hofmann, 'Lex. Univ.;* Sprengel, 'Hist. de la Med.,' tom. ii., p. 147; C. Steph. 'Dict. Hist.,* &c., p. 8, edit. N. Lloyd; Ger. Jo. Voss., 'Op.,' t. 5, p. 24. The first edition of the Poem of Serenus, according to Choulant (Handbuch,' &c.), was printed, sine loco et anno, in 4to, or large Svo, at Milan, in black letter, before the year 1484. This edition is very scarce, and is said by Panzer ('Annal. Typogr.,' vol. ii., p. 555) to have been printed at Rome. The next edition (containing also Rhemnius Fannius, 'De Ponderibus et Mensuris') is that of Leipzig, 4to, 1515; the two best are that by Keuchenius, 8vo, Amstel., 1662 (reprinted 1706, 8vo); and that by Ackermann, 8vo, Lips., 1786. The poem has also been frequently printed with Celsus, and is contained in several collections of medical works, e. g. the Aldine,' fol., Venet., 1547; that of H. Stephens, fol., Paris, 1567; and that of Rivinus, 8vo, Lips., 1754: it is also inserted with copious notes in P. Burmann's 'Poëtæ Latini Minores,' 4to, Leid., 1731. Much historical and critical information is to be found in J. Bapt. Morgagni Epistolæ in Serenum Samonicum,' 8vo, Patav., 1721, which are reprinted in several editions of Celsus, and also in 'Morgagui Opuscula Miscellanea,' fol., Venet., 1763. See also C. G. Gruner, Varia Lectiones in Q. Serenum Samonicum, e Codice Vratislaviensi decerptæ, 4to, pp. 32, Jena, 1782; C. G. Gruner, Var. Lect. in Q. Ser. Sam., ex Nicol. Marescalci Enchiridio excerptæ,' 4to, Jenæ, 1803; and Reuss, 'Lectiones Sammonica,' 4to, Wirceb., 1837. 6 SERGELL, JOHANN TOBIAS, a Swedish sculptor of great merit, was born at Stockholm, on the 8th of September 1740, and was the son of a gold-lace maker and embroiderer. He himself was at first apprenticed to a stone-mason, and worked as such at the royal palace at Stockholm, which was then in progress; but his quickness and cleverness attracting the notice of the sculptor Larchevêque, he was taken by him as a pupil. After assisting him in modelling the two statues of Gustava Wasa and Gustavus Adolphus, Sergell obtained a travelling pension in 1767, and went to Rome, where he remained nearly twelve years, and produced many works that excited general admiration among the professors and patrons of art. On quitting Italy he visited Paris, where his 'Othryades,' a figure of a wounded Greek soldier, half life size (afterwards placed in the Luxembourg) gained him his admission into the Academy of Fine Arts. From Paris he proceeded to London, whence he was almost immediately summoned by Gustavus III., who conferred upon him the appointment of court sculptor. In 1784 he accompanied that monarch in his visit to Rome, and it was by his advice that Gustavus there purchased, among many other valuable works of art, the celebrated 'Endymion,' for the royal museum at Stockholm. Catherine II. was afterwards desirous of securing his talents in her service, and made him the most flattering offers; but though wealth as well as distinction awaited him at St. Petersburg, Sergell's attachment to his sovereign and his native land, and his indifference to riches, induced him to remain in Sweden with the comparatively trifling pension of 600 rix-dollars. The untimely end of Gustavus, whom he regarded rather as his friend than his master and patron, so affected him that he fell into a deep melancholy, and was for a length of time wholly incapable of doing anything in his profession. It was not till a few years before his death that he regained something like his wonted composure of mind, but it was then almost too late for him to think of retrieving the time that had been lost to art. He died at Stockholm, on the 26th of February 1814, in his seventyfourth year. Sergell's works are distinguished by vigour of conception, by energy and grace of style, and by perfect freedom from that mannerism aud sickly affectation into which sculpture had fallen in the hands of his immediate predecessors and contemporaries. Among his principal statues are the group of Cupid and Venus,' 'Diomedes carrying off the Palladium, Othryades, a Faun, Gustavus III., 'Oxenstierna dictating to the Muse of History the Deeds of Gustavus Adolphus,' 'Mars and Venus,' a Venus Callipyge, most of which are in the royal museum. One of his finest productions, The Resurrection,' a composition in alto rilievo for the Adolph-Frederick Church at Stockholm, exists only in the model, having never been executed in marble; as was the case with a number of other subjects. His busts and portrait medallions were highly esteemed, both for fidelity of likeness and for artistic merit. SERGIUS I., a Syrian by birth, succeeded Conon in the see of Rome, A.D. 657. Two candidates for the see, a priest called Theodore and also the Archdeacon Paschal, each of whom had numerous partisans, were on the point of coming to blows, when the principal citizens and officers of the garrison, in order to avoid a tumult, proposed to elect Sergius, who had acquired a reputation for piety and learning. The proposal being adopted by many of the clergy, Sergius, escorted by a numerous retinue, was taken to the Lateran church, the doors of which were broken open, and those of the opposite or Theodore's faction, who had fortified themselves in it, being driven out, Sergius was chaired, and Theodore was one of the first to salute him as pontiff. Paschal did the same afterwards, being forced to it by the multitude. Before Conon's death Paschal had promised a sum of money to the Exarch of Ravenna, who, as the representative of the Byzantine emperor in Italy, had the right of giving or withholding his For further information respecting this magical word, see Du Cange, sanction to the election, and the money had been given for the purpose of securing his consent. The Exarch John came to Rome, and finding that Sergius bad been elected by the majority, requested him to pay him what Paschal had promised,. and upon Sergius demurring, the Exarch took several valuables from the church of St. Peter. Paschal was accused of sorcery, tried, and sentenced to be degraded and confined in a monastery, where he died. One of the first transactions of Sergius was to baptise Cedwalla, king of the West Saxous, who had come to Rome for that purpose. He also contributed to the diffusion of Christianity in Saxony and other countries by means of missionaries. In 691 the Emperor Justinian II. assembled a general council at Constantinople, which being held in a hall of the palace which was surmounted by a dome ('trulleum'), has been styled 'Concilium in Trullo.' It has also been called Quini-sextum, as being supplementary to the fifth and sixth cecumenic councils, which had published no canons of discipline or religious ceremonies. The council in trullo' was purposely assembled to supply this deficiency; one hundred and fifty bishops were present at it, and it passed more than one hundred canons on matters of discipline and ceremonies, six of which being in opposition to the practice of the Western or Roman Church, the council was not approved of by Sergius, although his legate who attended the council had concurred in it. One of these canons enacted that married candidates for the priesthood might retain their wives after their ordination. There were also some points of dogma concerning the two natures of Christ and the Virgin Mary, in which the council and the pope did not agree. Justinian, irritated at the opposition of Sergius, sent Zacharias, his protospatarius, or general-inchief, to Rome with orders to arrest Sergius and bring him prisoner to Constantinople. But the garrison of the Exarch at Rome took the pope's part, and Zacharias was obliged to take refuge in the pope's apartments, whence he was sent back safely to Greece. A revolution, headed by Leontius, one of his generals, took place at Constantinople soon after, when Justinian was seized, mutilated, and banished to the Crimea, in 695. Leontius did not long enjoy the fruits of his crime, for he was seized himself, and mutilated by Tiberius Apsimerus, who became emperor, and allowed the Church of Rome and the pope to remain undisturbed. Sergius occupied bimself in restoring the church of St. Peter, which had been greatly dilapidated. He died in 701, and was succeeded by John VI. SERGIUS II., a native of Rome, was elected to succeed Gregory IV., in 844, and was consecrated without waiting for the approbation of the Emperor Lotharius, who sent his son and colleague Louis into Italy with an army. Louis came to Rome, where he was received by the pope and clergy in a friendly manner, and was crowned king of Italy. The soldiers of Louis however committed great devastation in the surrounding country and in the suburbs of the city, but the pope at last induced Louis to withdraw his troops to the north. Soon after the Saracens from Africa came up the Tiber and ravaged the country, plundering the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul, which were outside of the walls, but they could not enter Rome. They then proceeded by the Via Appia to Fondi, which they sacked. Sergius died in 847. SERGIUS III. was elected in 904, by the Tuscan party, as it was called, because it was headed by Adelbert, marquis of Tuscany, and of which two Roman ladies of licentious character, Marozia and her mother Theodora, were the most influential leaders. They had deposed and imprisoned Christopher, who had imprisoned the preceding pope Leo V., and had forced him to resign his see to him. Sergius had had a son by Marozia, who was afterwards pope by the name of John X. Sergius seems to have been a man of some abilities; his character has been variously represented by different writers. The history of Rome, during the 10th century, is extremely obscure, though it is evident by all concurrent testimonies that it was a most profligate age, and Sergius was certainly not free from the prevalent profligacy. He died in 911, and was succeeded by Anastasius III. SERGIUS IV., a native of Rome, succeeded John XVIII. in 1009. He encouraged the princes of Italy to unite in order to drive away the Saracens, who had occupied several parts of the peninsula. It was in his time that the Normans began to muster in South Italy. Sergius died in 1012, and was succeeded by Benedict VIII. SE'RLIO, SEBASTIA'NO, an Italian architect, whose writings were long considered of authority in matters of art, was born at Bologna in 1475. The study of Vitruvius inspired him with an eager desire of obtaining greater insight into the practice of the ancients, by examining and making drawings of what remained of their structures, at that time the only method by which any knowledge of them could be acquired; there being no accurate delineations published for the instruction of those who could not visit the edifices themselves. After staying some time at Pesaro, Serlio proceeded to the Venetian States, where he employed himself in examining and measuring the amphitheatre and bridges at Verona. He subsequently visited Vicenza, where he erected a theatre, and Venice, where he made designs for the church of San Francesco delle Vigne. During his residence in Venice, he became acquainted with Sanmicheli, Sansovino, and other architects of note; and he himself would doubtless have found employment there, being noticed by the Doge Andrea Gritti, if his passion for exploring antiquities had not induced him to pass over to Pola, of whose amphitheatre and other Roman remains he was the first to publish any architectural account. On his return he examined those of Ancona, Spoleto, &c., and afterwards those of Rome, many of which are introduced as illustrations, but certainly not as embellishments, in his work on architecture, they being there represented in most coarsely drawn and executed woodcuts. It was while he was at Rome that he composed his treatise on the five orders, for a copy of which he was complimented by Francis I. with three hundred gold crowns. Invited to France by that monarch in 1541, he was there appointed architect at the palace of Fontainebleau, and was also commissioned to undertake the court of the Louvre, but generously declined in favour of Lescot, whose designs he recommended to be adopted as being superior to his own. After the death of his royal patron he retired to Lyon, where he remained for some time in exceedingly straitened if not in indigent circumstances; but he returned again to Fontainebleau, and died there in 1552. His reputation rests chiefly upon his writings, 'Opere di Architettura, Libri Sei,' which display more study and learning than taste; and which, highly as they were at one time esteemed, possess little real value at the present day. SERTORIUS, QUINTUS, was a native of Nursia, in the country of the Sabines. He lost his father very early, but his mother bestowed great care upon his education, and the son in return for her kindness entertained for her through life the most tender affection. After his education was completed, he tried his fortune at Rome as an orator, and thereby acquired considerable influence. (Plut., Sert.,' 2; Cic., 'Brut.,' 48.) But he soon turned his attention to military affairs, and the first time that he distinguished himself was during the campaign of Marius against the Cimbri and Teutones. At the end of this campaign he was sent to Spain as tribune under the prætor Didius, and spent the winter in the Celtiberian town of Castalo. Here again he attracted much attention by his courage and prudence. After his return to Rome, when the Marsic war was breaking out, he was made quæstor of Gallia Circumpadana and commissioned to levy troops, which he (Plut., 'Sert.,' 4) accomplished with the greatest success, but his exertions caused him the loss of one of his eyes. (Plut. and Sallust., ' ap. Gell.,' ii. 27.) On his return to Rome he was a candidate for the tribuneship of the people, but was defeated by the party of Sulla. Sertorius now joined the party of Cinna and Marius, not because he approved of their proceedings, but because he detested the ruling aristocrats. After the Marian party was defeated and Marius himself driven from Italy, Cinna and Sertorius raised fresh troops in Italy and held out against their opponents. When Marius returned from Africa (B. C. 87) and took bloody vengeance upon his enemies, Sertorius was the only one of the party who showed moderation; how much he was in earnest in this matter is evident from the fact that after the death of Marius he put to death 4000 slaves who had been the body-guard of Marius and had perpetrated every possible crime against the citizens. (Plut., 'Sert.,' 5.) When Sulla returned to Italy in B.C. 83, and Sertorius saw that all would be lost, and that the consuls Scipio and Norbanus paid no regard to his advice, he contrived to be made proconsul of Spain, and went to his province, where he hoped to prepare a refuge for his friends if they should be defeated in Italy. (Plut., 'Sert.,' 6; Appian, Civil.,' i. 108.) In Spain he began his new career, in which he displayed prudence and courage tempered with humanity. Spain had hitherto, with few exceptious, been preyed upon by avaricious governors. Sertorius listened to the just complaints of the natives, whom he attempted to blend with the Romans as much as possible. The great among the Spaniards were gained by his affability, and the poor by his reduction of taxes. At the same time he carried on his preparations for the approaching war with the utmost energy, and kept both Romans and Spaniards in constant exercise. When he heard that Sulla was in possession of Rome, and that his own party was defeated, he sent Julius Salinator with 6000 heavy-armed troops to take possession of the passes in the Pyrenees. About the same time C. Annius, a Sullanian general, arrived at the Pyrenees, but tried in vain to effect a passage. Salinator was treacherously slain and his army dispersed, and Annius now crossed the Pyrenees. Sertorius, who was too much weakened by this event to offer any resistance, retreated to New Carthage, and, accompanied by a few faithful followers, he cruised for a time in the Mediterranean. He made a landing in Africa, where he aided one of the native princes, and defeated Paccianus, one of the generals of Sulla. After having had an encounter with a large fleet of Annius, and after having escaped from a heavy storm, he again landed in Spaiu near the mouth of the river Baetis. Here he heard an account of the delightful climate of the Insula Fortunate (the Canary Islands), and was greatly inclined to withdraw thither and to spend the remainder of his life in quiet. (Plut., Sert., 8, 9.) His men however involved him in another military undertaking in Africa, and his great succesa induced the Lusitanians, who were oppressed by cruel and rapacious governors of the Sullanian party to invite Sertorius to the supreme command among them. This invitation came just at the moment when he was considering whither he should retire. (Plut., ‘Sert.,' 10.) Sulla was now dead, and Sertorius, being at such a distance from Rome and little acquainted with the real state of affairs there, conceived new hopes of ultimate success, and gladly accepted the invita tion. On his appearance in Lusitania, the Romans as well as the Spaniards immediately declared for him. He now began to mak! war upon four Roman generals who were in possession of the greater part of Spain, and had great armies at their command. Sertorius defeated Cotta near Mellaria in a sea-fight, and Aufidius in Baetica, |