the work of their pupils. From their French training, many of the American artists have been charged with echoing Parisian art; and the charge is partly true. They have accepted French methods because they think them the best, but their subjects and motives are sufficiently original.

Under separate biographical headings a number of modern American artists are noticed. Some of the greatest Americans however can hardly be said to belong to any American school. James McNeill Whistler, though American-born, is an example of the modern man without a country. E. A. Abbey, John S. Sargent, Mark Fisher and J. J. Shannon are American only by birth. They became resident in London and must be regarded as cosmopolitan in their methods and themes. This may be said with equal truth of many painters resident in Paris and elsewhere on the Continent. However good as art it may be, there is nothing distinctively American about the work of W. T. Dannat, Alexander Harrison, George Hitchcock, Gari Melchers, C. S. Pearce, E. L. Weeks, J. L. Stewart and Walter Gay. If they owe allegiance to any centre or city, it is to Paris rather than to New York.

During the last quarter of the 19th century much effort and money were devoted to the establishment of institutions like the Metropolitan Museum in New York, the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburg, and the Art Institute in Chicago. Every city of importance in the United States now has its gallery of paintings. Schools of technical training and societies of artists likewise exist wherever there are important galleries. Exhibitions during the winter season and at great national expositions give abundant opportunity for rising talent to display itself; and, in addition, there has been a growing public patronage of painting, as shown by the extensive mural decorations in the Congressional Library building at Washington, in the Boston Public Library, in many colleges and churches, in courts of justice, in the reception-rooms of large hotels, in theatres and elsewhere.

(J. C. VAN D.) PAISIELLO (or PAESIELLO), GIOVANNI (1741-1816), Italian musical composer, was born at Tarento on the 9th of May 1741. The beauty of his voice attracted so much attention that in 1754 he was removed from the Jesuit college at Tarento to the Conservatorio di S. Onofrio at Naples, where he studied under Durante, and in process of time rose to the position of assistant master. For the theatre of the Conservatorio, which he left in 1763, he wrote some intermezzi, one of which attracted so much notice that he was invited to write two operas, La Pupilla and Il Mondo al Rovescio, for Bologna, and a third, Il Marchese di Tulipano, for Rome. His reputation being now firmly established, he settled for some years at Naples, where, notwithstanding the popularity of Piccini, Cimarosa and Guglielmi, of whose triumphs he was bitterly jealous, he produced a series of highly successful operas, one of which, L'Idolo cinese, made a deep impression upon the Neapolitan public. In 1772 he began to write church music, and composed a requiem for Gennara Borbone. In the same year he married Cecilia Pallini, with whom he lived in continued happiness. In 1776 Paisiello was invited by the empress Catherine II. to St Petersburg, where he remained for eight years, producing, among other charming works, his masterpiece, Il Barbiere di Siviglia, which soon attained a European reputation. The fate of this delightful opera marks an epoch in the history of Italian art; for with it the gentle suavity cultivated by the masters of the 18th century died out to make room for the dazzling brilliancy of a later period. When, in 1816, Rossini set the same libretto to music, under the title of Almaviva, it was hissed from the stage; but it made its way, nevertheless, and under its changed title, Il Barbiere, is now acknowledged as Rossini's greatest work, while Paisiello's opera is consigned to oblivion-a strange instance of poetical vengeance, since Paisiello himself had many years previously endeavoured to eclipse the fame of Pergolesi by resetting the libretto of his famous intermezzo, La Serva padrona.

Paisiello quitted Russia in 1784, and, after producing Il Re Teodoro at Vienna, entered the service of Ferdinand IV. at Naples, where he composed many of his best operas, including

Nina and La Molinara. After many vicissitudes, resulting from political and dynastic changes, he was invited to Paris (1802) by Napoleon, whose favour he had won five years previously by a march composed for the funeral of General Hoche. Napoleon treated him munificently, while cruelly neglecting two far greater composers, Cherubini and Méhul, to whom the new favourite transferred the hatred he had formerly borne to Cimarosa, Guglielmi and Piccini. Paisiello conducted the music of the court in the Tuileries with a stipend of 10,000 francs and 4800 for lodging, but he entirely failed to conciliate the Parisian public, who received his opera Proserpine so coldly that, in 1803, he requested and with some difficulty obtained permission to return to Italy, upon the plea of his wife's ill health. On his arrival at Naples Paisiello was reinstated in his former appointments by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, but he had taxed his genius beyond its strength, and was unable to meet the demands now made upon it for new ideas. His prospects, too, were precarious. The power of the Bonaparte family was tottering to its fall; and Paisiello's fortunes fell with it. The death of his wife in 1815 tried him severely. His health failed rapidly, and constitutional jealousy of the popularity of others was a source of worry and vexation. He died on the 5th of June 1816. Paisiello's operas (of which he is known to have composed 94) abound with melodies, the graceful beauty of which is still warmly appreciated. Perhaps the best known of these airs is the famous " Nel cor più " from La Molinara, immortalized by Beethoven's delightful variations. His church music was very voluminous, comprising eight masses, besides many smaller works; he also produced fifty-one instrumental compositions and many detached pieces. MS. scores of many of his operas were presented to the library of the British Museum by Dragonetti.

The library of the Gerolamini at Naples possesses an interesting MS. compilation recording Paisiello's opinions on contemporary composers, and exhibiting him as a somewhat severe critic, especially of the work of Pergolesi. His Life has been written by F. Schizze (Milan, 1833).

PAISLEY, CLAUD HAMILTON, LORD (c. 1543-1622), Scottish politician, was a younger son of the 2nd earl of Arran. In 1553 he received the lands of the abbey of Paisley, and in 1568 he aided Mary Queen of Scots to escape from Lochleven castle, afterwards fighting for her at the battle of Langside. His estates having been forfeited on account of these proceedings, Hamilton was concerned in the murder of the regent Murray in 1570, and also in that of the regent Lennox in the following year; but in 1573 he recovered his estates. Then in 1579 the council decided to arrest Claud and his brother John (afterwards Ist marquess of Hamilton) and to punish them for their past misdeeds; but the brothers escaped to England, where Elizabeth used them as pawns in the diplomatic game, and later Claud lived for a short time in France. Returning to Scotland in 1586 and mixing again in politics, Hamilton sought to reconcile James VI. with his mother; he was in communication with Philip II. of Spain in the interests of Mary and the Roman Catholic religion, and neither the failure of Anthony Babington's plot nor even the defeat of the Spanish Armada put an end to these intrigues. In 1589 some of his letters were seized and he suffered a short imprisonment, after which he practically disappeared from public life. Hamilton, who was created a Scottish baron as Lord Paisley in 1587, was insane during his concluding years. His eldest son James was created earl of Abercorn (q.v.) in 1606.

PAISLEY, a municipal and police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, 3 m. from its junction with the Clyde, 7 m. W. by S. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1891), 66,425; (1901) 79,363. In 1791 the river, which bisects the town, was made navigable for vessels of 50 tons and further deepened a century later. It is crossed by several bridges-including the Abercorn, St James's and the Abbey Bridges-and two railway viaducts. The old town, on the west bank of the stream, contains most of the principal warehouses and mills; the new town, begun towards the end of the 18th century, occupies much of the level ground

PAJOL, CLAUDE PIERRE, COUNT (1772-1844), French cavalry general, was born at Besançon. The son of an advocate, he was intended to follow his father's profession, but the events of 1789 turned his mind in another direction. Joining the battalion of Besançon, he took part in the political events of that year, and in 1791 went to the army of the Upper Rhine with a volunteer battalion. He took part in the campaign of 1792 and was one of the stormers at Hochheim (1793). From Custine's staff he was transferred to that of Kléber, with whom he took part in the Sambre and Rhine Campaigns (1794-96). After serving with Hoche and Masséna in Germany and Switzerland (1797-99), Pajol took a cavalry command under Moreau for the campaign on the upper Rhine. In the short years of peace Pajol, now colonel, was successively envoy to the Batavian Republic, and delegate at Napoleon's coronation. In 1805, the emperor employed him with the light cavalry. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz, and, after serving for a short time in Italy, he rejoined the grande armée as a general of brigade, in time to take part in the campaign of Friedland. Next year (1808) he was made a baron of the Empire. In 1809 he served on the Danube, and in the Russian War of 1812 led a division, and afterwards a corps, of cavalry. He survived the retreat, but his health was so broken that he retired to his native town of Besançon for a time. He was back again in active service, however, in time to be present at Dresden, at which battle he played a conspicuous part. In 1814 he commanded a corps of all arms in the Seine Valley. On the fall of Napoleon, Pajol gave in his adhesion to the Restoration government, but he rejoined his old master immediately upon his return to France. His (I) corps of cavalry played a prominent part in the campaign of 1815, both at Ligny and in the advance on the Wavre under Grouchy. On receiving the news of Waterloo, Pajol disengaged his command, and by a skilful retreat brought it safe and unbeaten to Paris. There he and his men played an active part in the actions which ended the war. The Bourbons, on their return, dismissed him, though this treatment was not, compared to that meted out to Ney and others, excessively harsh. In 1830 he took part in the overthrow of Charles X. He suppressed, sternly and vigorously, émeutes in Paris in 1831 and 1832, 1834 and 1839. A general, and a peer of France, he was put on the retired list in 1842, and died two years later.

He

His son, Count CHARLES PAUL VICTOR PAJOL (1821-1891), entered the army and had reached the rank of general of division when he was involved in the catastrophe of Metz (1870). retired in 1877. Besides being a good soldier, he was a sculptor of some merit, who executed statues of his father and of Napolcon, and he wrote a life of his father and a history of the wars under Louis XV. (Paris 1881-1891).

See Count C. P. V. Pajol: Pajol général en chef (Paris, 1874); Thomas, Les Grands cavaliers du premier empire (Paris, 1892); and Choppin, in the Journal des sciences militaires (1890).

PAJOU, AUGUSTIN (1730-1809), French sculptor, was born in Paris on the 19th of September 1730. At eighteen he won the Prix de Rome; at thirty he exhibited his Pluton tenant Cerbère enchaine (now in the Louvre). His portrait busts of Buffon and of Madame Du Barry (1773), and his statuette of Bossuet (all in the Louvre), are amongst his best works. When B. Poyet constructed the Fontaine des Innocents from the earlier edifice of P. Lescot (see GOUJON) Pajou provided a number of new figures for the work. Mention should also be made of his bust of Carlin Bertinazzi (1763) at the Comédie Française, and the monument of Marie Leczinska, queen of Poland (in the Salon of 1769). Pajou died in Paris on the 8th of May 1809. PAKHOI, or PEIHAI, a city and treaty port of China, in the west of the province of Kwang-tung, situated on a bay of the Gulf of Tong-king, formed by the peninsula running south-west from Lien-chow, in 21° 30′ N., 109° 10' E. Pop. about 25,000.

a nest of pirates, Pakhoi rapidly grew into commercial importance, owing partly to the complete freedom which it enjoyed from taxation, and partly to the diversion of trade produced by the T'ai-p'ing rebellion. The establishment of a Chinese customhouse and the opening of the ports of Hanoi and Haiphong for a time threatened to injure its prospects; but, foreign trade being permitted in 1876-1877, it began in 1879 to be regularly visited by foreign steamers. The Chinese town stands on the peninsula and faces due north. From the bluff, on which all the foreign community lives, a partly cultivated plain extends. Liquid indigo, sugar, aniseed and aniseed oil, cassia-lignea and cassia oil, cuttle-fish and hides are the chief exports. With Macao especially an extensive junk trade is carried on. A large number of the inhabitants engage in fishing and fish-curing. The preparation of dried fish is a speciality of Pakhoi, the fish being exported to Hong Kong.

PAKINGTON, the name of a famous English Worcestershire family, now represented by the barony of Hampton. Sir John Pakington (d. 1560) was a successful lawyer and a favourite at court, and Henry VIII. enriched him with estates, including that of Westwood in Worcestershire. His grandnephew and heit, Sir John Pakington (1549-1625), was another prominent courtier, Queen Elizabeth's "lusty Pakington," famous for his magnificence of living. His son John (1600-1624) was created a baronet in 1620. His son, Sir John, the second baronet (16201680), played an active part on the royalist side in the troubles of the Great Rebellion and the Commonwealth, and was taken prisoner at Worcester in 1651; Lady Dorothy, his wife (d. 1679), daughter of the lord keeper Thomas Coventry, was famous for her learning, and was long credited with the authorship of The Whole Duty of Man (1658), which has more recently been attributed to Richard Allestree (q.v.). Their grandson, Sir John, the 4th baronet (1671-1727) was a pronounced high Tory and was very prominent in political life; for long he was regarded as the original of Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley, but the reasons for this supposition are now regarded as inadequate. The baronetcy became extinct with the death of Sir John Pakington, the 8th baronet, in January 1830, but it was revived in 1846 for his maternal nephew and heir, John Somerset Pakington (1799-1880), whose name was originally Russell. Born on the 20th of February 1799 and educated at Eton and at Oriel College, Oxford, Pakington had a long career as an active and industrious Conservative politician, being member of parliament for Droitwich from 1837 to 1874. He was secretary for war and the colonies in 1852; first lord of the admiralty in 18581859 and again in 1866-1867; and secretary of state for war in 1867-1868. In 1874 he was created Baron Hampton, and he died in London on the 9th of April 1880. From 1875 until his death Hampton was chief civil service commissioner. In 1906 his grandson Herbert Stuart (b. 1883) became 4th baron Hampton. It is interesting to note that in 1529 Henry VIII. granted Sir John Pakington the right of wearing his hat in the royal presence.

PAKOKKU, a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma, lying west of the Irrawaddy river and south of Mandalay, with the line of the Chin hills as a general boundary on the west. It has an area of 6210 sq. m. and a population (1901) of 356,489. The part of the district along the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers is alluvial. Beyond this, however, the country rises gradually to the low Shinmadaung and Tangyi ridges, where it is very arid. To the westward there is a rapid drop to the wellwatered valley of the Yaw River, and then a rise over broken, dry country before the valleys of the Myit-tha and Môn rivers are reached. The principal products are millet, sesamum and sugar produced from toddy-palms in the riverain districts, which also grow rice, grain, peas and beans. Tobacco and vegetables are also produced in some quantity, and maize is grown largely for the sake of the husk, which is used for native cheroot-wrappers, under the name of yawpet. The Yenangyat oil-fields, which produce quantities of petroleum, are in the south of the district, and iron used to be worked in a small way. There are 1151 sq. m. of reserved forests in the

district. A good deal of teak and cutch is worked out. The cutch of the Yaw country is particularly esteemed. The average rainfall does not exceed 35 in. annually, and in many places water has to be carted for miles. West of the Pôndaung ridge, however, under the Chin hills, the rainfall exceeds 50 inches. The heat in May and June is very great, and the thermometer rises considerably above 100° F. in the shade.

The great majority of the population is Burmese, but in Yaw there is a peculiar race called Taungthas, who claim to be quite distinct from both Burmese and Chins. In 1901 the Taungthas numbered 5700.

The headquarters town, Pakokku, stands on the right bank of the Irrawaddy, and has grown into importance since the British occupation. It is the great boat-building centre of Upper Burma. The population in 1901 was 19,456. It may be described as the emporium of the trade of the Chindwin and Yaw river valleys. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company call here regularly, and it is the starting-point for the vessels plying on the Chindwin.

PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839-1884), Indian publicist, was born in Calcutta in 1839, of the Teli or oil-man's caste, which ranks low in the Hindu social hierarchy. He received an English education at the Oriental Seminary and the Hindu Metropolitan College, and at an early age devoted himself to journalism. In 1861 he was appointed assistant secretary (and afterwards secretary) to the British Indian Association, a board of Bengal landlords, which numbered among its members some of the most cultured men of the day. At about the same time he became editor of the Hindu Patriot, originally started in 1853 and conducted with | ability and zeal by Harish Chandra Mukerji until his death in 1861. This journal having been transferred by a trust deed to some members of the British Indian Association, it henceforth became to some extent an organ of that body. Thus Kristo Das Pal had rare opportunities for proving his abilities and independence during an eventful career of twenty-two years. In 1863 he was appointed justice of the peace and municipal commissioner of Calcutta. In 1872 he was made a member of the Bengal legislative council, where his practical good sense and moderation were much appreciated by successive lieutenantgovernors. His opposition, however, to the Calcutta Municipal Bill of 1876, which first recognized the elective system, was attributed to his prejudice in favour of the "classes" against the "masses." In 1878 he received the decoration of C.I.E. In 1883 he was appointed a member of the viceroy's legislative council. In the discussions on the Rent Bill, which came up for consideration before the council, Kristo Das Pal, as secretary to the British Indian Association, necessarily took the side of the landlords. He died on the 24th of July 1884. Speaking after his death, Lord Ripon said: " By this melancholy event we have lost from among us a colleague of distinguished ability, from whom we had on all occasions received assistance, of which I readily acknowledge the value. . . . Mr Kristo Das Pal owed the honourable position to which he had attained to his own exertions. His intellectual attainments were of a high order, his rhetorical gifts were acknowledged by all who heard him, and were enhanced when addressing this council by his thorough mastery over the English language." A full length statue of him was unveiled by Lord Elgin at Calcutta in 1894.

See N. N. Ghose, Kristo Das Pal, a Study (Calcutta, 1887). PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill), primarily the residence of a sovereign or prince, but in England, Spain and France extended to the residence of a bishop, and in the latter country to buildings appropriated to the public service, such as courts of justice, &c. In Italy the name is given to royal residences, to public buildings, and to such large mansions as in France are either known as châteaux if in the country, or hôtels if in Paris.

The earliest palaces in Egypt are those built in the rear of the Temple of Karnak by Thothmes III. and near the Temple of Medinet Habu, both in Thebes; the earliest in Grecce are those at Cnossus and Phaestus in Crete (c. 1500 B.C.), and at Tiryns in the citadel (c. 1200 B.C.). The most remarkable series are those

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erected by the Assyrians at Nimroud, Koyunjik and Khorsabad (859-667 B.C.), which were followed by the Persian palaces at Persepolis and Susa; the Parthian palaces at Al Hadhr and Diarbekr; and the Sassanian palaces of Serbistan, Firuzabad and Ctesiphon. The only palace known of the late Greek style is that found at Palatitza in Macedonia. Of the Roman period there are many examples, beginning with those on the Palatine Hill commenced by Augustus, continued and added to by his successors, Tiberius, Caligula, Domitian, Hadrian and Septimus Severus, which covered an area of over 1,000,000 sq. ft. The villa of Hadrian was virtually an immense palace, the buildings of which extended over 7 m. in length; of more modest proportions are the palace of Diocletian at Spalato and a fine example at Trèves in Germany. The palace of the Hebdomon at Constantinople, and a fragment at Ravenna of Theodoric's work, are all that remain of Byzantine palaces. Of Romanesque work the only examples are those at Gelnhausen built by Barbarossa, and the Wartburg in Germany. In the Gothic style in Italy, the best known examples are the ducal palace at Venice, and the Palazzi Vecchio and del Podesta (Bargello) at Florence; in France, the palace of the popes at Avignon, and the episcopal palaces of Beauvais, Laon, Poitiers and Lisieux; in England, the bishops' palaces of Wells, Norwich, Lincoln, portions of Edward the Confessor's palace at Westminster, and Wolsey's palace at Hampton Court; while such great country mansions as the castles " of Alnwick, Kenilworth, Warwick, Rochester, Raglan and Stokesay, or Haddon Hall, come in the same category though the name is not employed. Belonging to the Mahommedan style are the palaces of the Alhambra and the Alcazar in Spain. Of the Renaissance period, numerous palaces exist in every country, the more important examples in Italy being those of the Vatican, the Quirinal and the Cancellaria, in Rome; the Caprarola near Rome; the palace of Caserta near Naples; the Pitti at Florence; the Palazzo del Te at Mantua; the court and eastern portion of the ducal palace of Venice, and the numerous examples of the Grand Canal; in France, the Louvre, the Tuileries (destroyed), and the Luxembourg, in Paris; Versailles and St Germain-en-Laye; and the châteaux of la Rochefoucauld, Fontainebleau, Chambord, Blois, Amboise, Chenonceaux and other palaces on the Loire; in Germany, the castle of Heidelberg, and the Zwinger palace at Dresden; in Spain, the palace of Charles V. at Grenada, the Escorial and the palace of Madrid; in England, the palace of Whitehall by Inigo Jones, of which only the banqueting hall was built, Windsor Castle, Blenheim, Chatsworth, Hampton Court; and in Scotland, the palaces of Holyrood and Linlithgow.

PALACIO VALDÉS, ARMANDO (1853- ), Spanish novelist and critic, was born at Entralgo, in the province of Asturias, on the 4th of October 1853. His first writings were printed in the Revista Europea. These were pungent essays, remarkable for independent judgment and refined humour, and found so much favour with the public that the young beginner was soon appointed editor of the Revista. The best of his critical work is collected in Los Oradores del Ateneo (1878), Los Novelistas españoles (1878), Nuevo viaje al Parnaso and La Literatura en 1881 (1882), this last being written in collaboration with Leopoldo Alas. In 1881 he published a novel, El Señorito Octavio, which shows an uncommon power of observation, and the promise of better things to come. In Marta y María (1883), a portrayal of the struggle between religious vocation and earthly passion, somewhat in the manner of Valera, Palacio Valdés achieved a very popular triumph which placed him in the first rank of contemporary Spanish novelists. El Idilio de un enfermo (1884), a most interesting fragment of autobiography, has scarcely met with the recognition which it deserves: perhaps because the pathos of the story is too unadorned. The publication of Pereda's Sotileza is doubtless responsible for the conception of José (1885), in which Palacio Valdés gives a realistic picture of the manners and customs of seafaring folk, creates the two convincing characters whom he names José and Leonarda, and embellishes the whole with passages of animated description barely inferior to the finest penned by Pereda himself. The

emotional imagination of the writer expressed itself anew in the charming story Riverita (1886), one of whose attractive characters develops into the heroine of Maximina (1887); and from Maximina, in its turn, is taken the novice who figures as a professed nun among the personages of La Hermana San Sulpicio (1889), in which the love-passages between Zeferino Sanjurjo and Gloria Bermúdez are set off with elaborate, romantic descriptions of Seville. El Cuarto poder (1888) is, as its name implies, concerned with the details, not always edifying, of journalistic life. Two novels issued in 1892, La Espuma and La Fe, were enthusiastically praised in foreign countries, but in Spain their reception was cold. The explanation is to be found in the fact that the first of these books is an avowed satire on the Spanish aristocracy, and that the second was construed into an attack upon the Roman Catholic Church. During the acrimonious discussion which followed the publication of La Espuma, it was frequently asserted that the artist had improvised a fantastic caricature of originals whom he had never seen; yet as the characters in Coloma's Pequeñeces are painted in darker tones, and as the very critics who were foremost in charging Palacio Valdés with incompetence and ignorance are almost unanimous in praising Coloma's fidelity, it is manifest that the indictment against La Espuma cannot be maintained. Subscquently Palacio Valdés returned to his earlier and better manner in Los Majos de Cádiz (1896) and in La Algeria del Capitán Ribot (1899). In these novels, and still more in Tristán, ó el pesimismo (1906), he frees himself from the reproach of undue submission to French influences. In any case he takes a prominent place in modern Spanish literature as a keen analyst of emotion and a sympathetic, delicate, humorous observer. (J. F.-K.) PALACKÝ, FRANTIŠEK [FRANCIS) (1798-1876), Czech historian and politician, was born on the 14th of June 1798 at Hodslavice (Hotzendorf) in Moravia. His ancestors had been members of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, and had secretly maintained their Protestant belief throughout the period of religious persecution, eventually giving their adherence to the Augsburg confession as approximate to their original faith. Palacký's father was a schoolmaster and a man of some learning. The son was sent in 1812 to the Protestant gymnasium at Pressburg, where he came in contact with the philologist Šafarik and became a zealous student of the Slav languages. After some years spent in private teaching Palacký settled in 1823 at Prague. Here he found a warm friend in Dobrovský, whose good relations with the Austrian authorities shielded him from the hostility shown by the government to students of Slav subjects. Dobrovský introduced him to Count Sternberg and his brother Francis, both of whom took an enthusiastic interest in Bohemian history. Count Francis was the principal founder of the Society of the Bohemian Museum, devoted to the collection of documents bearing on Bohemian history, with the object of reawakening national sentiment by the study of the national records. Public interest in the movement was stimulated in 1825 by the new Journal of the Bohemian Museum (Časopis českého Musea) of which Palacký was the first editor. The journal was at first published in Czech and German, and the Czech edition survived to become the most important literary organ of Bohemia. Palacký had received a modest appointment as archivist to Count Sternberg and in 1829 the Bohemian estates sought to confer on him the title of historiographer of Bohemia, with a small salary, but it was ten years before the consent of the Viennese authorities was obtained. Meanwhile the estates, with the tardy assent of Vienna, had undertaken to pay the expenses of publishing Palacký's capital work, The History of the Bohemian People (5 vols., 1836-1867). This book, which comes down to the year 1526 and the extinction of Czech independence, was founded on laborious research in the local archives of Bohemia and in the libraries of the chief cities of Europe, and remains the standard authority. The first volume was printed in German in 1836, and subsequently translated into Czech. The publication of the work was hindered by the police-censorship, which was especially active in criticizing his account of the Hussite movement. Palacký, though entirely national and Protestant in

his sympathies, was careful to avoid an uncritical approbation of the Reformers' methods, but his statements were held by the authorities to be dangerous to the Catholic faith. He was therefore compelled to make excisions from his narrative and to accept as integral parts of his work passages interpolated by the censors. After the abolition of the police-censorship in 1848 he published a new edition, completed in 1876, restoring the original form of the work. The fairest and most considerable of Palacký's antagonists in the controversy aroused by his narrative of the early reformation in Bohemia was Baron Helfert, who received a brief from Vienna to write his Hus und Hieronymus (1853) to counteract the impression made by Palacký's History. K. A. K. Höfler, a German professor of history at Prague, edited the historical authorities for the period in a similar sense in his Geschichte der hussitischen Bewegung in Böhmen. Palacký replied in his Geschichte des Hussitenthumes und Professor Löfler (Prague, 1868) and Zur böhmischen Geschichtschreibung (Prague, 1871).

The revolution of 1848 forced the historian into practical politics. He was deputed to the Reichstag which sat at Kromeřice (Kremsier) in the autumn of that year, and was a member of the Slav congress at Prague. He refused to take part in the preliminary parliament consisting of 500 former deputies to the diet, which met at Frankfort, on the ground that as a Czech he had no interest in German affairs. He was at this time in favour of a strong Austrian empire, which should consist of a federation of the southern German and the Slav states, allowing of the retention of their individual rights. These views met with some degree of consideration at Vienna, and Palacký was even offered a portfolio in the Pillersdorf cabinet. The collapse of the federal idea and the definite triumph of the party of reaction in 1852 led to his retirement from politics. After the liberal concessions of 1860 and 1861, however, he became a life member of the Austrian senate. His views met with small support from the assembly, and with the exception of a short period after the decree of September 1871, by which the emperor raised hopes for Bohemian self-government, he ceased to appear in the senate from 1861 onwards. In the Bohemian Landtag he became the acknowledged leader of the nationalist-federal party. He sought the establishment of a Czech kingdom which should include Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, and in his zeal for Czech autonomy he even entered into an alliance with the Conservative nobility and with the extreme Catholics. He attended the Panslavist congress at Moscow in 1867. He died at Prague on the 26th of May 1876.

Among his more important smaller historical works are: Würdi gung der alten böhmischen Geschichtschreiber (Prague, 1830), dealing with authors of many of whose works were then inaccessible to liche Beiträge zur Geschichte des Hussitenkriegs (2 vols., Prague, Czech students; Archiv česky (6 vols., Prague, 1840-1872); Urkund 1872-1874); Documenta magistri Johannis Ilus vitam, doctrinam, causam... illustrantia (Prague, 1869). With Safarik he wrote Anfänge der böhmischen Dichtkunst (Pressburg, 1818) and Die volumes of his Czech articles and essays were published as Radhost ältesten Denkmäler der böhmischen Sprache (Prague, 1840). Three (3 vols., Prague, 1871-1873). For accounts of Palacký see an article by Saint René Taillandier in the Revue des deux mondes (April, 1855); Count Lützow, Lectures on the Historians of Bohemia (London, 1905).

PALADIN (Lat. palatinus), strictly a courtier, a member of a royal household, one connected with a palace. From being applied to the famous twelve peers of Charlemagne, the word became a general term in romance for knights of great prowess.

PALAEMON, QUINTUS REMMIUS, Roman grammarian, a native of Vicentia, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius. From Suetonius (De grammaticis, 23) we learn that he was originally a slave who obtained his freedom and taught grammar at Rome. Though a man of profligate and arrogant character, he enjoyed a great reputation as a teacher; Quintilian and Persius are said to have been his pupils. His lost Ars (Juvenal, vii. 215), a system of grammar much used in his own time and largely drawn upon by later grammarians, contained rules for correct diction, illustrative quotations and treated of barbarisms and solecisms (Juvenal vi. 452). An extant Ars grammatica (discovered by Jovianus Pontanus in the 15th century) and