forced to submit, and the Mantchou dynasty was firmly established on the | Chinese throne.

Chosroes, (?-628, A.D.) Chosroes II. was the grandson of Chosroes I., the mighty ruler of the empire of the Sassanidæ, which extended from the Mediterranean to the Indus, and from the Jaxartes to Arabia. A revolution raised him to the throne, and drove him again from it. He fled to the Romans, and was restored by the aid of the Emperor Maurice, (591.) A band of a thousand Romans, who continued to guard the person of Chosroes, proclaimed his confidence in the fidelity of the strangers. His growing strength enabled him to dismiss this unpopular aid; but he steadily professed the same gratitude to him who had been a friend in need. When Maurice was murdered, Chosroes declared war on the murderers, invaded the empire, (603,) took and destroyed many cities, and in the course of a few years extended his dominions to the Nile. Chosroes enjoyed the fruits of his victories with ostentation. His residence of Artemita (60 miles to the north of Ctesiphon) was celebrated throughout the world. 960 elephants and 2,000 camels were maintained there; the stables were filled with 6,000 mules and horses; 6,000 guards mounted before the palace gate, while 12,000 slaves performed the household duties. Forty thousand columns of silver supported a roof from which were suspended 1,000 globes of gold, to imitate the motions of the planets and the constellations of the zodiac. But this prosperity was followed by reverses. In the great battle of Nineveh, (627,) Chosroes was totally defeated by Heraclius. He fled, but was overtaken, and finally murdered by his own son.

Chrysostome. See ST. CHRYSOSTOME.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, (B. C. 106-B. c. 43,) the prince of Roman orators. At the age of 26 he commenced practice as a pleader. He rose rapidly in his profession, and the quæstorship in Sicily was bestowed upon him. In this office he made himself very popular, and henceforth his course was all prosperous, until he attained, B. C. 63, the great object of his ambitionthe consulship. The conspiracies of Catiline made Cicero's consular duty as difficult and dangerous as his performance of it was able and honorable; and he scarcely, if at all, exaggerated his services to Rome when he said that to his conduct "alone was owing the salvation of both the city and

the commonwealth." But his popularity declined very soon after the expiration of his consulship, and it was chiefly as a lawyer and author that he for some time afterward exerted his splendid talents. In the struggle between Cæsar and Pompey, Cicero espoused the cause of the latter; but after the fatal battle of Pharsalia he made his peace with the former, with whom he continued to all appearance friendly, until Cæsar fell under the dagger of Brutus. Cicero now took part with Octavius, and pronounced the philippics against Antony, which at once shortened his life and added to his fame. Antony, stung to the quick, insisted upon the death of Cicero, and Octavius basely consented to the sacrifice. In endeavoring to escape from Tusculum, he was overtaken and murdered; and his head and hands were publicly exhibited on the rostrum at Rome. Cicero perished in his 64th year, (B. C. 43.) Of his works, consisting of orations, philosophical, rhetorical, and moral treatises, and familiar letters, written in the purest and most perfect Latin, there have been almost innumerable editions. See "Life of Cicero," by William Forsyth.

Cid, The, (1040–1099,) whose real name was Don Rodrigo Dias de Bivar, the national hero of Spain, was born at Burgos. The facts of his career have been wrapped by his admiring countrymen in such a haze of glorifying myths, that it is scarcely possible to detect them. His life, however, appears to have been entirely spent in fierce warfare with the Moors, then masters of a great part of Spain. His exploits are set forth in a special chronicle, and in a poem of considerable interest, written not long after his death. The story of his love for Ximena is the subject of Corneille's masterpiece," Le Cid." His last achievement was the capture of Valencia, where he died, in 1099.

Civil War in England. See Appendix, page 202.

Claudius Tiberius Drusus, (B. C. 9-A. D. 54,) Roman Emperor. After spending fifty years of his life in a private station, unhonored, and but little known, he was, on the murder of Caligula, his nephew, A. D. 41, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, and confirmed in the sovereignty by the senate. At first he performed some praiseworthy acts, but he soon became contemptible for his debauchery and voluptuousness. During the first part of his reign he was completely under the influence of his third wife,

the infamous Messalina, who, for her vices and crimes, was at last put to death. Claudius died of poison administered by his fourth wife, Agrippina, A. D. 54. Claudius visited Britain two years after his succession, and made it a Roman province. He built the port of Ostia, and the Claudian Aqueduct, and executed other great works.

Clay, Henry, (1777-1852,) a distinguished American statesman. Clay was elected to fill an unexpired term in the United States Senate, in December, 1806. In 1811 he was sent to the House of Representatives, and was chosen speaker. He was a warm advocate of the war with Great Britain, and throughout that crisis sustained Madison's war measures with great zeal. In 1814 he was sent to Ghent as one of the commissioners to negotiate the treaty of peace with Great Britain. Returning home, he was again sent to Congress in 1815, and was elected speaker during two consecutive terms. During the year 1818 he achieved great distinction by his advocacy of the claims of the South American republics to the recognition of their independence by the United States. In 1824, Clay was a candidate for the presidency; and Adams, being chosen President, tendered to him the office of secretary of state, which he accepted, and retained till the close of Adams's administration. In 1831 he was sent to the United States Senate, and in 1832 was again a candidate for the presidency, but was defeated by General Jackson. During the session of 1833, when the Tariff question was agitating the nation, he brought forward his celebrated Compromise Bill, which passed both houses, and restored quiet to the country. In 1844 he was for the third time a candidate for the presidency, but was defeated by Polk. In December, 1849, he again took his seat in the Senate, where he remained until 1851, when the encroachments of disease obliged him to tender his resignation. His last service as senator was in 1850, when he originated the series of measures known as the Compromise, which rescued the Union from one of its greatest dangers. A long career of 46 years identified him with much of the history of the American nation, and though he was never president, few presidents could hope for greater dignity or a more enduring fame.

Clive, Robert, (1725-1774,) went to India as a writer, but soon quitted that employment for the army, and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the king's service. After a short stay in England for the benefit of his

health, he returned to India, and was shortly called upon to march to Calcutta, of which the nabob Surajah Dowlah had taken possession. He was again successful; and perceiving that there could be no permanent peace obtained until the nabob was dethroned, he made the necessary arrangements, and in the famous battle of Plassey put the nabob completely to the rout, and established the power of the English more firmly than it had ever been before. As governor of Calcutta, Clive performed great service, both civil and military; in consequence of which he was raised to the peerage. In 1776 he returned to England, having done more to extend the British territory, and consolidate the English power in India, than any other commander. But the large wealth he had acquired during his long and arduous services, exposed him to an accusation in the House of Commons of having abused his power. The charge fell to the ground, but it hurt his mind so deeply, that he committed suicide in 1774. The achievements of Clive are the theme of one of the most noble essays of Macaulay.

Clovis, (465-511 A. D.,) the founder of the French monarchy, was descended from a race of German chieftains who had established themselves in the Low Countries, and had gradually extended their dominion as far as Paris. He was the son of Childeric, and succeeded him in 481. The first enemy he attacked was Syagrius, the Roman general and governor of that part of Gaul still independent of the barbarians, whose capital was Soissons. Syagrius was vanquished, (486,) and this victory secured the permanence and independence of the French monarchy. It was, above all, as chief of the religious party and defender of the national faith that he offered himself to the native tribes and Catholic clergy of Gaul. He restored the shaken authority of the Church from the shores of the Atlantic to the forests of Germany. Rome, grateful to Clovis, decreed him the glorious title of “Elder Son of the Church," and he transmitted it to all his suc

cessors.

Cluny, (910,) a town of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire, situated 10 miles N. W. of Macon, on the river Grosne. Here was the famous abbey of the order of St. Benedict. In the Benedictine abbeys, the second Benedict had commenced a new era of discipline and mortification. Cluny displayed this marvellous inward force, this reconstructing, reorganizing,

reanimating energy of monasticism. It furnished the line of German pontiffs to the papacy; it trained Hildebrand (see Gregory VII.) for the papal throne, and placed him upon it.

Colbert, Jean Baptiste, (1619-1683,) a celebrated French statesman, to whose talents, activity, and enlarged views, France owed much of her financial and commercial prosperity. Mazarin took him into his service, and his conduct recommended him to the king as intendant of the finances. He was made, soon after, comptroller-general of the finances. Subsequently he became superintendent of buildings, secretary of state, and, in 1669, minister of the marine; and in every capacity he acted so as to obtain the approbation of the king. To literature and the arts he constantly gave encouragement: he instituted the Academy of Sciences, and that of Sculpture and Painting; and it was at his recommendation that the Royal Observatory was erected. To him, too, Paris owed the erection of many noble buildings; and, if a less brilliant minister than some of his predecessors, he conferred more substantial benefits upon his country than most of them.

Columbus, (1435-1506.) Christopher Columbus was born near Genoa, about 1435. At fourteen he went to sea. After many voyages and adventures, he settled, about 1470, at Lisbon, which was then the great centre of maritime enterprise. There, as he pored over his maps, a grand idea began to take definite shape within his brain. He believed that it was possible to reach Asia by sailing westerly across the Atlantic; and his soul kindled within him as he felt that he was the man chosen by Heaven to carry the light of the cross into a new world beyond the western waves. After vainly seeking aid from Genoa, Portugal, and England, he at length obtained an introduction to Queen Isabella of Castile, and induced her to equip three vessels for a voyage of discovery. He set sail from Palos on the 2d of August, 1492; and after sailing for two months, was in imminent danger of losing the reward of all his study and toil, the variation of the needle having so much alarmed his men that they were on the point of breaking into open mutiny. He was obliged to promise that if three days produced no discovery he would commence his homeward voyage. On the third day they hove in sight of land, (Guanahani.) Columbus had the sweetest reward of his faith and enthusiasm, when he bent his knees in

worship, not without tears, on the promised new land, on the 12th of October, 1492.

Comines, Philippe de, (1447–1511,) a great French historian. His "Mémoires " present a very vivid and authentic portraiture of the court of Louis XI., and of the principal events and general character of the age in which he lived.

Commodus, Lucius Aurelius, (161-192,) Roman Emperor, was the son of the wise and virtuous Marcus Aurelius. He was most carefully educated, and accompanied his father on several military expeditions. He succeeded him in 180 A. D., and after a short period of orderly government he dismissed his wisest counsellors, and gave himself up to the lowest society and the most shameless habits. The administration was in the hands of a series of his favorites, and confiscations and murders were the ordinary occurrences of the day. He went so far in defiance of decency as to fight in the circus as a gladiator, and then gave himself out for a god, and would be worshipped as Hercules. He was at last poisoned by a concubine, whom he intended to put to death; and then strangled by an athlete, A. D. 192. The vices and misgovernment of Commodus contributed powerfully to hasten the fall of the empire.

Condé, (1621–1686,) called the Great. His first achievement was the victory over the Spanish army at Rocroi, in 1643. After taking Dunkirk in 1646, Condé was, through envy, sent into Catalonia, where, with inferior troops, success forsook him. It was necessary soon to recall him to Flanders, where he won the victory of Sens over the Archduke Leopold in 1648. Having offended the first minister, Cardinal Mazarin, he was imprisoned more than a year, and after his liberation he led the army of the Fronde, began the siege of Paris, and encountered Turenne and the royalists in the Faubourg St. Antoine. Soon after, he entered the service of Spain, and contended with varying success against his countrymen in Flanders. After the Peace of the Pyrenees, he returned to Paris, and was employed in the conquest of Franche-Comté. His last great exploit was the victory over William, Prince of Orange, (William III.,) at Senef, in 1674. Martyr to the gout, he retired in the following year to his charming seat at Chantilly, enjoying there the society of some of the most eminent

men of letters; among them, Racine, Boileau, and Molière. There is a life of the great Condé by Lord Mahon. (See GENEALOGY, VII.)

Congress, first American. The British ministry imposed, in 1767, on the people of North America, a duty on tea, glass, and other articles. This act aroused the people, and they adopted measures for resisting the king and Parliament. In February, 1768, Massachusetts sent a circular to the colonies, asking their co-operation in obtaining a redress of grievances. There was a cordial response favorable to the circular from nearly every colony; and by common consent it was ordered that a congress of delegates from all the colonies should be called together. On the 5th of September, 1774, the First American Congress met at Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia. Fifty-three delegates appeared, the ablest men in America, representing every colony but Georgia. It was a solemn meeting, for it involved the destiny of America. There was but one voice in the assembly, one feeling - never to submit. A petition was addressed to the king, whose infatuated course was flinging the brightest jewel from his crown; an appeal was made to the people of Great Britain, but preparation for the worst was not forgotten.

Constantine the Great, (272–337,) Roman Emperor. After defeating the Franks, he married Fausta, the daughter of Maximian, but he was soon involved in a war with his father-in-law, who assumed the title of emperor. The usurper's reign was brief; and, on his being taken prisoner, Constan. tine caused him to be strangled. This involved him in a war with Maxentius, son of Maximian, in which the latter was defeated, and drowned in the Tiber. It was during this war that the emperor saw a luminous cross in the heavens, with the inscription, "In hoc signo vinces," (Under this sign thou shalt conquer.) He accordingly caused a new standard to be made, surmounted by the monogram of the name of Christ; marched to Rome in triumph; and was declared by the senate Augustus and Pontifex Maximus, (High Priest.) In the following year the edict to stay the persecution of the Christians was published at Nicomedia. Constantine became, in 325, sole head of the Eastern and Western Empires, and his first care was the establishment of peace and order. He displayed great courage and love of justice, and professed an ardent zeal for the Christian religion. He made Byzantium the seat of empire, naming it anew, after himself,

Constantinople. But though his actions on the whole entitled him to the surname of “The Great," many acts of cruelty, and, above all, the murder of his son Crispus, have left a stain upon his character, both as a man and a sovereign. Constantine died at Nicomedia, in May, 337, having been baptized only a few days before. His empire was divided between his three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. (See POPE SYLVESTER.)

Cook, Captain James, (1728-1779,) the celebrated English navigator. After various and arduous services, he was at length raised to the rank of lieutenant; and then commenced that series of voyages round the world, the details of which form one of the most popular and delightful books in our language. Captain Cook embarked on his first voyage as commander of the Endeavor, in August, 1768, reached New Holland (Australia) in 1770, and arrived in England in 1771. He set out on a third voyage, discovered the Sandwich Islands, explored the western coast of North America, and then made further discoveries in the Pacific. In spite of the utmost prudence and humanity, he was involved in a dispute with the natives of Owyhee, and, while endeavoring to reach his boats, was savagely murdered on St. Valentine's day, 1779.

Copernicus, Nicholas, (1473-1543,) the celebrated mathematician and founder of the modern system of astronomy. He studied the various systems of the ancient astronomers, compared them with each other, and applied himself to the construction of a system at once more simple and more symmetrical. The fruits of his researches appeared in his Latin treatise "On the Revolution of the Celestial Orbs," in which he represented the sun as occupying a centre round which the earth and the other planets revolve. His great work remained in MS. for thirteen years after he had completed it, so diffident was he as to the reception it might meet with; and it was only a few hours before his death that a printed copy was presented to him, giving him assurance that his opinions would see the light, though he would be beyond the reach of censure and persecution, Corneille, Pierre, (1606–1684,) the greatest of French dramatic poets. His first dramatic piece was "Mèlité," a comedy, which met with such distinguished success that he was encouraged to devote his rare powers to the drama. The tragedies of "Medea," "The Cid," "The Horatii," and

'Cinna," followed, and established for their author a pre-eminent station among French dramatists. He wrote many other tragedies, and translated in verse Thomas à Kempis' "On the Imitation of Jesus Christ." He again turned to the drama, but his last works were unworthy of his

name.

Cortez, Fernando, (1485-1554,) the conqueror of Mexico. In 1511, he went with Velasquez to Cuba, and the conquest of Mexico being determined upon, Cortez obtained the command of the expedition. In 1518, he set sail with 700 men in ten vessels; and on landing at Tabasco, he caused his vessels to be burned, in order that his soldiers might have no other resource than their own valor. Having conquered the Tlascalans, and induced them to become his allies, he marched toward Mexico, where he was amicably received; but having seized their monarch, Montezuma, and treated the people with the utmost insolence, the Mexicans first murmured, and then resisted. Cortez besieged the city of Mexico; and in the desperate struggle which ensued, it is said that upward of 100,000 of the faithful and unfortunate Mexicans were killed or perished by famine. Having reduced the city, Cortez completely conquered the Mexican territory, and made it a Spanish dependency.

Cranmer, Thomas, (1489-1556,) Archbishop of Canterbury, and memorable for the part he took in the Reformation. The opinion which he gave on the question of Henry VIII.'s divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, recommended him to the king, who employed him to vindicate the measure, and sent him, in 1530, with other envoys, to maintain his view before the Pope, Clement VII. He took with him the opinions which had been obtained from the foreign universities in favor of the same view. His mission was fruitless. After his return, he was raised by a papal bull to the archbishopric of Canterbury, in which office he zealously promoted the cause of the Reformation. Through his influence the Bible was translated and read in churches; and he greatly aided in the suppression of the monasteries. A few weeks after his appointment he pronounced, in a court held at Dunstable, the sentence of divorce of Catherine of Aragon, and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn. In 1536, when Anne Boleyn was destined to lose her reputation and her life, Cranmer

promoted the sentence of divorce. This and other compliances with the royal will insured him the support of Henry in all his contests with Bishop Gardiner and others, who accused him of heresy and faction. By Henry's will he was appointed one of the council of regency to Edward VI.; and, as the young king was brought up chiefly under the archbishop's care, it enabled him to further the objects of the Reformation. When Edward was prevailed on to alter the succession in favor of Lady Jane Grey, the archbishop unwillingly consented. On the accession of Mary, he was committed to the Tower, and convicted of high treason for his share in the proclamation of Lady Jane. Pardoned soon after, he was then convicted of heresy. He made many applications for pardon, and even signed a recantation of his principles. But when Cranmer was brought into church to read his recantation in public, he refused to do it, declaring that nothing could afford him consolation but the prospect of extenuating his guilt by encountering the fiery torments which awaited him. This greatly enraged his adversaries, who, after vilifying him as a hypocrite and heretic, dragged him to the stake opposite Baliol College, (Oxford.) The archbishop approached it with a cheerful countenance, and met his death with the utmost fortitude, exclaiming, as he thrust his right hand into the flames, "This unworthy hand! this unworthy hand!"

Cromwell, Oliver, (1599-1658,) Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, and one of the most extraordinary characters in history. His first appearance on the political arena was in the Parliament of 1629. In his parliamentary career he was remarkable rather for his business-like habits and energy of character than for elegance of language or gracefulness of delivery. He, notwithstanding, acquired considerable influence; and, in 1642, when it was resolved to levy forces to oppose the king, Cromwell received a commission. He soon distinguished himself by his courage and military skill, especially at the battle of Marston Moor, in 1644, and soon after won the decisive victory of Naseby, (1645.) In August, 1649, he was named "Lord Lieutenant and Commander-in-chief in Ireland," and subdued it. In consequence of the expected return of Prince Charles to Scotland, Cromwell was recalled. He was appointed lord general, and set out for Scotland. On the 3d of September, 1650, the great battle of