verted the president of a presbytery into the privileged superintendent of his brotherpastors. The assumption was resisted by the presbyters at first, but from the middle of the 5th c., episcopacy, or the domination of bishops, continued to gain the upper hand over presbyterianism, or equality of all pastors.

In the 3d c. bishops appear still dependent on the advice of their presbyters, and the consent of the people, and shared with the former the office of teaching and the cure of souls. As yet their exclusive privileges or functions were limited to confirmation, ordination of ministers, consecration of sacred things, settlement of secular differences among Christians, and management of the revenues of the church. But the tendency to subordination and unity did not rest here. Among the bish ops, at first all equal, those of the larger and more important cities began gradually to acquire a superiority over those of inferior cities. When Christianity was made the religion of the Roman empire, the bishops became more and more monarchical, and put themselves on the footing of ecclesiastical princes. The chief cities of the larger civil provinces rose to be seats of extensive dioceses, the bishops of these assuming the distinctive titles of patriarch, metropolitan, papa-titles of courtesy that had long been applied to all bishops; while the less important provinces, with their capitals and bishops, became subordinate. Among these provincial bishops, again, three, from obvious causes, acquired a prominence that cast all the rest into the backgroundnamely, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Rome. The beginnings of the ascendency of the Roman B. are discernible as early as the end of the 2d century. While ancient Rome sought her sccular dominion more in the s. and e., modern ecclesiastical Rome turned herself chiefly to the nations of the w. and n.; and round the B. of Rome has grown a power-the Roman Catholic church-not less important than that of imperial Rome.

In the Roman Catholic church, the episcopal office is the foundation of the whole system. Christ's apostles are held to have transferred their functions to the episcopacy as a body. Every B., therefore, exercises within his own diocese, first, the jus magisteri-i.e., the right of maintaining and propagating the orthodox faith; and second, the jus ordinis, or regulation of the sacred and mysterious rites of the priestly office, some of which are transferred to the inferior clergy, as jura communia, while others remain the privileges of the bishop (jura propria). Among episcopal prerogatives, in addition to those already mentioned as assigned to them in the 3d and 4th c., are anointing of kings, consecration of abbots, preparation of the chrisma, etc. They have also the management of the church-property in their respective dioceses, and the oversight of all ecclesiastical institutions. Election to the office of B. rests generally with the presbyters of the diocese assembled in chapter, with the sanction of the secular power and of the pope. This is the case in Prussia. Where the sovereign is a Catholic, the appointment is mostly made by him, but subject to papal approbation. At consecration, which requires the presence of three bishops, the new B. takes an oath to the sovereign and to the pope, and signs the articles of belief, on which he receives the episcopal insignia-the miter (q. v.); crosier (q.v.) or staff; a gold ring, emblematic of his marriage to the church; the cross upon the breast; the dalmatica (q.v.), tunic, pallium (q.v.), and peculiar gloves and chaussure; and being enthroned, as formal installation into office, he then pronounces the blessing on the assembled people. In the discharge of his office, the B. has a number of subordinate assistants; sometimes, in case of age or weakness, a coadjutor, but ordinarily deans, archdeacons, etc. (q.v.)

In the Greek church, the office of B. is essentially the same, though less influential. Greek bishops, however, are always chosen from the monkish orders, and generally from the archimandrites-i.e., abbots or priors.

As Protestantism met with its chief resistance from the bishops, and, besides, laid the chief stress on doctrine rather than on church order, the episcopal order, in most of the reformed churches, either disappeared or sank into comparative insignificance. Of the continental Protestant churches, episcopacy has kept the foremost hold in Sweden and Norway. The Scandinavian bishops acceded to the reformation in 1531 only on compulsion from Gustavus Vasa, who confirmed them in their revenues and prerogatives. The B. of Upsala is primate, and has the prerogative of crowning the king, consecrating the other bishops, etc. The bishops are named by the king out of three proposed by the chapters. They preside in consistories, hold synods, visit the churches, examine and ordain ministers, consecrate churches, and watch over purity of doctrinc and the property of the church. They have seats in parliament, and wear the pallium, miter, crosier, and cross. There are only six bishops in Sweden and Norway, with an additional B. of the order of the seraphim.

In Denmark, the Catholic bishops opposed the reformation, and were (1536) deposed by Christian III., and their extensive possessions confiscated. The king appointed in their stead a general superintendent and 9 Protestant bishops, with a fixed stipend. They are under the secular government, and have very limited authority over the clergy under their charge. The first in rank is the B. of Seeland.

In Protestant Germany, the episcopal dignity and rights passed into the hands of the secular sovereigns, who, down to quite recent times, assumed the title of supreme bishops, and exercised the prerogatives of such. Where the sovereign, as in Saxony, was of a different confession from the majority of his subjects, the episcopal authority

was delegated to a minister. The bishoprics, however, were gradually secularized, and with the nominal or titular bishops of Osnabrück and Lubeck (1803) the old episcopal dignities became almost extinct on the Protestant soil of Germany. The Lutheran church, however, never formally abolished the office of B., and Melanchthon endeavored to get it expressly recognized. In Prussia, accordingly, the title of B. has had a fluctuating fate. The bishops in office at the time having acceded to the reformation in 1525, were continued; but in 1554 the revenues were confiscated, and the duties assigned to superintendents. In 1587, this last remnant of the episcopal office also disappeared; till Frederick I. conferred the title of B. on two of his court-preachers on occasion of his coronation. At their death it again ceased, and was not revived until at the peacefestival in 1816 Frederick William III. raised two clergymen to the dignity of bishops, One of them, the B. of Königsberg, received in 1829 the title of evangelical archbishop. Several have since received the title of B., along with that of superintendent-general, entitling them to the first place in the consistories, a certain civil rank, insignia, and salary. Of the other German states, only Nassau followed the example of Prussia, by naming in 1818 a B. for the united evangelical churches of the duchy. Elsewhere, the episcopal authority, mostly in very limited form, is exercised by consistories, ministries of worship, superintendents-general, inspectors, etc.

In the church of Scotland, and other Presbyterian churches on the Geneva model, the episcopal office is not recognized. Roman Catholic Scotland was divided into eleven dioceses or bishoprics.

In none of the Protestant countries have the prerogatives and revenues of bishops remained so little impaired as in England, where the reformation was taken into his own hands by the king, and being propagated from above downward, was effected in a very conservative spirit. Episcopacy was abolished about the time of the commonwealth, but at the restoration the bishops were restored, and have since retained their position in church and state.

The practice and history of the church of England in the matter of bishops may be given somewhat more in detail. The B. is the head of the clergy in his diocese; he ordains them, whereby he calls them into existence as ecclesiastical persons; he institutes them to benefices, and licenses them to cures, and to preach; visits them, and superintends their morals; and enforces discipline, for which purpose he has several courts under him, and can suspend or deprive them for due cause.

Over the laity he exercises a general pastoral authority, but they are more particu larly brought under his notice at the time of their confirmation. The style, title, and privileges of the B. are inferior to those of the archbishop (q.v.). He is said to be installed in his bishopric; he writes himself, "by divine permission;" and has the title of lord, and right rev. father in God; and he may retain six chaplains. A bishop must be at least 30 years of age; the reason for which is, that Christ began his ministry at that age. For many centuries after the Christian era, the B. received all the profits of his diocese, and paid salaries to such as officiated under him. The mode of election, confirmation, and consecration is the same in the case of bishops and archbishops, for each archbishop is also B. and has his own diocese. The B. is elected by the chapter of his cathedral church by virtue of license from the crown. The laity used to take part in the election, but from the tumults that arose, the different sov. ereigns of Europe took the appointment, in some degree, into their own hands by reserving to themselves the right of confirming these elections, and of granting investiture to the temporalities which now began to be annexed to these dignities. This right was acknowledged in the emperor Charlemagne by pope Hadrian I., 773 A.D., and the council of Lateran. The right of appointing to bishoprics is said to have been in the crown of England even in Saxon times. But when, by length of time, the custom of electing by the clergy only was fully established, the popes began to object to the usual method of granting these investitures which was per annulum et baculum-i.e., by the prince delivering to the prelate a ring and pastoral staff or crosier. In the 11th c., pope Gregory VII. published a bull of excommunication against all princes who should dare to confer investitures. There were long and eager contests occasioned by this papal claim, but at length the matter was compromised, the emperor Henry V. agreeing to confer investiture for the future per sceptrum; and the kings of France and England consented to receive only the homage for the temporalities, instead of investing them by the ring and crosier, the pope keeping in his hands the power of confirmation and consecration. This concession was obtained from Henry I.; but king John, in order to obtain the pope's protection against his barons, gave up, by a charter to all monasteries and cathedrals, the free right of electing their prelates. This grant was confirmed in Magna Charta, and was again confirmed by statute 25 Edward III. But by statute 25 Henry VIII. the ancient right of nomination was in effect restored to the crown. The sovereign, on the vacancy being notified, sends to the dean and chapter a letter missive, or congé d'élire, containing the name of the person to be elected; and if they do not elect in the manner appointed by the act, or if the archbishop or B. appointed for the purpose refuse to confirm, invest, and consecrate the B. elect, the recusants incur the penalty of a præmunire (q.v.). A bishop is not consecrated more than once, and he cannot be deposed, as it is supposed that the order itself cannot

Bishop.

absolutely be taken from him; he may, however, be deprived, as was done to the B. of Clogher in 1822; he may also resign his see; and he may be removed from one see to another, which is called translation; but this practice is now less frequent than it used to be. The dean and chapter of Canterbury claim it as an ancient right of that church, that every B. of the province is to be consecrated in it, or the archbishop to receive from them a license to consecrate elsewhere; and it is said that a long succession of licenses to that purpose are regularly entered in the registry of that church. When elected and confirmed, a B. may exercise all spiritual jurisdiction, but he is not completely B. until consecration. Bishops, upon their election, become peers of the realm, and are summoned to the parliament as well as the other nobles; but the right under which they sit there, whether in respect of their baronies, or by usage and custom, is a matter of uncertainty. It appears, however, that the bishops sat in the Wittenagemote, under the Saxon monarchs, as spiritual persons; for they were not barons until William the conqueror turned their possessions into baronies, and subjected them to the tenure of knights' service. The bishops created by Henry VIII.— viz., Bristol, Gloucester, Chester, Oxford, and Peterborough, as also the lately created bishops of Ripon and Manchester-sit in parliament, though they do not hold their lands by baronial tenure. The bishops withdraw from the house (under protest, however) when any capital charge is to be decided. The bishops sit in parliament next to the archbishop of York; first, London; second, Durham; third, Winchester; and then the rest according to their ancienties. In respect of their persons, bishops are not peers with the nobility; and in cases of alleged crimes, they are tried by a jury in the same manner as commoners, as was the case with Cranmer and Fisher. When a see is vacant, the archbishop of the province is guardian of the spiritualities; but he cannot as such consecrate or ordain or present to vacant benefices. The sovereign has custody of the lay-revenues during a vacancy. Queen Elizabeth kept the see of Ely vacant 19 years.

All the bishops of a province, with respect to their archbishop, are called his suffragans; but originally this term denoted the bishops who were consecrated to assist and help the other bishops, and to supply their places when absent. They were also called chorepiscopi, or bishops of the country.

The B. of Durham had formerly a palatine jurisdiction, as it was called in the county of Durham; and the B. of Ely had a similar secular authority in certain places; but these powers were transferred to the crown in 1836. The houses of bishops are called their palaces. In old times their palaces in London were extra-diocesan; and while residing there, they exercised jurisdiction in the same manner as in their own dioceses. This personal privilege is now extinct in the bishops; but Lambert house, Croydon, Winchester place, and Ely house retain the privilege. A bishop makes a triennial visitation of his diocese.

The conferring of orders rests, in a great measure, with the discretion of the bishop. He can refuse to ordain without giving any reason, but he can ordain no person who does not subscribe to the queen's supremacy, the book of Common Prayer, and the 39 articles. A candidate for orders must be first examined and approved; and the person to whom the right of performing this duty belongs, is by the canon law the archdeacon of the diocese. A B. may give letters dimissory to another B., licensing the latter to ordain a candidate. No person under 23 can be ordained deacon, and none can be ordained priest under 24 years of age. See ORDINATION.

In England, there are 32 bishops, including the two metropolitans-viz., Canterbury, York, London, Durham, Winchester, Bangor, Rochester, Exeter, Peterborough, St. David's, Worcester, Chichester, Lichfield, Ely, Oxford, St. Asaph, Manchester, Hereford, Chester, Llandaff, Lincoln, Salisbury, Bath and Wells, Carlisle, Gloucester and Bristol, Ripon, Norwich, Sodor and Man, Truro, St. Albans, Liverpool, Newcastle. The B. of Sodor and Man, and the junior of the rest (provided he be not an archbishop, or bishop of London, Durham, or Winchester), have no seat in parliament.

In Ireland, there are 12, including the two metropolitans, whose sees stand firstviz., Armagh and Clogher, Dublin and Kildare, Meath, Killaloe, Kilfenora, Clonfert and Kilmacduagh, Tuam, Killala, and Achonry; Ossory, Ferns, and Leighlin; Cashel, Emly, Waterford, and Lismore; Down, Connor, and Dromore; Derry and Raphoe, Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe; Kilmore, Elphin, and Ardagh; Cork, Cloyne, and Ross. In British North America, there are 17 secs; in the West Indies, 6; in South America, 2; in Africa, 13; in Asia, 11; in Australasia, 22; and in Europe, 1-that of Gibraltar; besides missionary bishops and the B. at Jerusalem. There are 7 bishops of the Episcopal church in Scotland. In the U. S. there are 39 bishops of the Protestant Episcopal church. There are an archbishop and 13 Roman Catholic bishops in England. In Ireland there are 4 Catholic archbishops and 28 bishops. The Roman Catholic hierarchy in Scotland was formally restored in 1878, and has 2 archbishops and 4 bishops. The assumption of territorial titles by Roman Catholic bishops in England and Scotland is illegal, but they are, nevertheless, commonly ascribed to them by members of that communion. See Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Burn's Ecclesiastical Law, Cripp's Laws of the Church, and Blackstone. See also ARCHBISHOP. For vestments, see illus., PRIESTS, MONKS, and NUNS, vol. XII., p. 150.

*BISHOP (ante). In the Protestant Episcopal church in the United States, the func tions of bishops, in religious matters, are similar to those of English prelates. In political affairs they have, of course, no official power. They are chosen to office by the convention of clerical and lay delegates in the diocese over which they are to preside; and are consecrated by the house of bishops, according to rules established by the general convention, which consists of the house of bishops and a second house of clerical and lay delegates from all the dioceses. There are 61 diocesan and missionary bishops. In the Methodist Episcopal church, the bishops are elected by the general conference. Their duties are those included in a general superintendence of the whole church. Authority is vested in them all, and its administration is distributed among themselves by mutual agreement. They preside over meetings of the annual conferences, ordain ministers, and appoint them to their fields of labor. The oldest in office is honored as "senior bishop.' In Congregational churches all pastors are bishops.

In the Roman Catholic church in the United States, bishops are appointed by the pope, as in other countries, and are subject to him. See Supp., page 892.

BISHOP, a favorite beverage composed of red wine (claret, Burgundy, etc.) poured warm or cold upon ripe bitter oranges, sugared and spiced to taste, and drunk either hot or cold. The quality of the B. depends upon the excellence of the wine employed in its preparation. The oranges must be carefully selected, and the white part between the peel and pulp must be thrown away. If white wine be used, the beverage is called cardinal; and with Tokay it becomes pope. B. was known under other names in Germany during the middle ages, having been imported into that country from France and Italy; its present name seems to have been bestowed during the 17th century.

BISHOP, BOY. See BOY BISHOP.

BISHOP, ANNA, wife of the composer, sir Henry Rowley B., and herself an eminent operatic and classical singer. Her first appearance was in 1837, and she soon became widely known in Europe and America. In 1858, she married Mr. M. Schultz, of New York. She d. 1884.

BISHOP-AUCKLAND, a t. in England, 11 m. s. w. of the city of Durham, on an eminence near the confluence of the Wear and Gaunless; well paved, lighted, and watered. The palace of the bishop of Durham, at the n.e. end of the town, is a spacious and splendid though irregular structure. The site was chosen in the time of Edward I. by bishop Anthony Beck. The present buildings cover five acres, and there is a park attached of 800 acres. The industries of the town are cotton manufactures and engineer

ing. Pop. '81, 10,087.

BISHOP, WILLIAM HENRY, American author; b. Conn., 1847; was graduated at Yale in 1867; has written the novels Detmold (1879); The House of a Merchant Princo (1882); The Golden Justice (1887); several vols. of stories; Old Mexico and her Lost Proc inces (1884); Fish and Men on the Maine Islands (1885), etc.

BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY, an eminent English composer of music, was b. in London in 1780. His principal musical instructor was Signor Francisco Bianchi, an opera composer settled in London. In 1806 B. was appointed composer of ballet music at the opera. His most popular operatic entertainments were Guy Mannering; The Slave; The Miller and his Men; Maid Marian; Native Land; The Virgin of the Sun; etc.—all remarkable for their long flowing melodies, animated style, and true musical power. From 1810 to 1824, he was director of the music at Covent garden theater. One of the first directors of the philharmonic society, he for many years conducted the concerts of ancient music. He arranged several volumes of the National Melodies, and succeeded sir John Stevenson as arranger of the airs selected by Moore for his Melodies. In June, 1839, he received the degree of bachelor of music from the university of Oxford, and in Nov., 1841, was elected Reid professor of music in the university of Edinburgh. In 1842, he was knighted. In Dec., 1843, he resigned his Edinburgh chair, and in Feb., 1848, was elected professor of music in the university of Oxford. In his later years he was in very necessitous circumstances. He died April 30, 1855.

BISHOP'S CASTLE, a t. in the s. w. of Shropshire, 19 m. s. w. of Shrewsbury. It is irregularly built on a hill slope. Pop. '81, 2000. The bishops of Hereford had formerly a castle here, now destroyed. During the civil wars of the 17th c., the inhabitants took shelter in the church, which was demolished over their heads.

BISHOP'S STORTFORD, a t. of Hertfordshire, on the Stort, 10 m. e.n.e. of Hertford. It chiefly consists of two streets in the form of a cross. It carries on a trade in grain and malt, and has several tan-yards. B. S. was in Saxon times the property of the bishops of London. Pop. '71, 6250; '81, 6704.

Pop.

BISHOP'S WALTHAM, a t. of Hampshire, about 10 m. e.n.e. of Southampton. of parish about 2000. Corn, leather, and malt form the chief trade of the town. It has been immemorially the property of the see of Winchester. There are the remains of a bishop's castle, built in 1135 by Henry de Bloisking, king Stephen's brother, and which was reduced to ruins during the civil wars of the 17th century. A gang of "Waltham Blacks," or deer stealers, infested the forest in this vicinity in the early part of the 18th century. The Black Act (q.v.) was passed in 1723, to put them down.

BISIGNA'NO, a t. of Italy, in the province of Cosenza, is situated on a hill near the junction of the Mucone with the Crati, about 15 m. n. of the town of Cosenza. It has a

cathedral, a castle, and a trade in silk, and gives the title of prince to the existing branch of the Sanseverino family. Pop. 4096.

BIS'KARA, or BISKRA, a t. in Algeria, and the most important military post of the Sahara, on the s. side of the Aures mountains. A large caravan trade between the Sahara and the Tell passes through the town. Iron, limestone, and saltpeter are found; dates are abundant; and there are manufactures of carpets. Near by is an acclimatiza tion garden, established by the French. Pop. '72, 7367.

BIS'LEY, a t. of Gloucestershire, 11 m. s.e. of Gloucester. Pop. of parish (1881), 5168. The chief manufacture is coarse clothing. The canal uniting the Severn and the Thames passes through the parish, the highest part being 370 ft. above sea-level. BISMARCK, N. Dakota. See page 892.

BISMARCK-SCHOENHAUSEN, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD, Prince von, chancellor of the German empire, now the most prominent man in Europe, was b. in 1815 at Brandenburg, of an old family, of which various members have gained a reputation both as soldiers and statesman. B. received his university education at Göttingen, Berlin, and Greifswald, where he studied law. After he had finished his studies, he ved for a time on his estates. Before 1847, he was little heard of, but about that time he began to attract attention in the Prussian parliament as an ultra-royalist, and an advocate of the extremest absolutism. He was one of those who opposed the scheme of a German empire, proposed by the German parliament of 1849. His diplomatic career commenced in 1851, when he was appointed chief secretary of the Prussian legation, at the resuscitated German diet at Frankfort. Here he began to manifest that zeal for the interests and aggrandizement of Prussia, which has since undeviatingly guided him, often regardless of the means. In the diet, he gave open expression to the long-felt discontent with the predominance of Austria, and demanded equal rights for Prussia. In St. Petersburg, whither he was sent in 1859, he is said to have tried to bring about an alliance between France, Prussia, and Russia, but without success. By this time he had acquired the special regard and confidence of the king, who sent him, in the spring of 1862, as ambassador to Paris, in order to give him an insight into the politics of the Tuileries, before taking the direction of affairs at home. In autumn, when the king's government could not obtain the consent of the lower house to the new military organization, B. was recalled, to take the portfolio of the ministry for foreign affairs, and the presidency of the cabinet. Not being able to pass the reorganization bill and the budget, he closed the chambers (Oct., 1862), announcing to the deputies that the king's government would be obliged to do with out their sanction. Accordingly, the army reorganization went on; and the next four sessions of parliament were closed or dissolved in the same way, without the government obtaining, or even caring to obtain, the sanction of the house. The people were now looking for a coup d'état, and the government for a revolution. At this crisis, the death of the king of Denmark opened up again the Slesvig-Holstein question, and excited a fever of national German feeling, which B. was adroit enough to work so as to aggrandize Prussia by the acquisition of the duchies, and reconcile his opponents to his high-handed policy by being able to point to the success of the newly-modeled army. Throughout the events which ended in the humiliation of Austria and the reorganization of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, B., as is universally admitted, was the guiding spirit; and such is the magic of success, that, from being universally disliked, he has become the most popular man in Germany. What is perhaps still stranger, the man who, of all others living, has been the most strenuous upholder of absolutism, and has all along manifested the strongest contempt for public opinion, received, in 1871, the thanks and congratulations of the extreme democrats of Great Britain for giving to North Germany a constitution based on universal suffrage. It was B. that negotiated the neutralization of the Luxemburg territory (1867). The action of France in regard to the candidature of prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain gave B. the opportunity of carrying into action the intensified feeling of unity amongst Germans. During the war of 1870-71, B. was the spokesman of Germany; he it was that, in Feb., 1871, dictated the terms of peace to France. He was soon created a prince and chancellor of the German empire. The most striking feature of his administration was a contest with the Roman Catholic church, in which the expulsion of the Jesuits (July, 1872), and the carrying out of the new ecclesiastical laws, were the most prominent events. His life was attempted in 1874. He presided at the Berlin congress of 1878. His recent financial schemes, including a tobacco monopoly and the extension of the protective system, met with very strong opposition from the national-liberal party. In March, 1890, he opposed certain reforms in the interests of the masses projected by the emperor, William II., and was dismissed, retiring to his estates. In social life B. is genial and witty. The work B. und seine Leute, by Dr. Busch (1878), contains many facts and amusing incidents, throwing light on the chancellor's character and manners. See also Lowe's Prince B. (London, 1886).

BISMUTH is a brittle metal of a crystalline texture, and of a white color tinged with a faint red hue. It is found native in Cornwall, Germany, France, and Sweden, where it occurs in veins or fissures passing through other rocks. The principal natural source is an impure metal; but it is likewise found in combination with oxygen, sulphur, and arsenic. The pure metal is generally obtained by heating the impure native B. in iron.