Anseres

(Lives of the Archbishops of Can terbury, 1860-76), and Dean Church (1870). In French the chief monograph is by Charles de Rémusat (1854). Cf. Dante's Paradiso, xii. 128. See A. C. Welch's Anselm and his Work (1901).

Anseres, Anseriformes. ANATIDE.

See

Ansgar, sometimes also ANSKAR, ST. (801-865), 'the Apostle of the North,' born in Picardy, was monk at the monastery of Corvey, on the Weser, till 826, when the emperor, Ludwig the Pious, sent him to accompany the newly baptized Danish king, Harold, to Denmark, there to spread the gospel. Driven from thence, in 828 he went as a missionary to Sweden, and in 831 was made missionary bishop of Hamburg. In 847 the see was transferred to Bremen. He founded the Schleswig Church, and in 852 the Swedish Church also, and preached among the Wends. He wrote Pigmenta and Vita Willehadi. The latter and his own Life by his successor, Archbishop Rimbert, are in Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, vol. ii., ed. Pertz. See Tappehorn, Leben des Heil: A. (1863).

Anshelm, VALERIUS (d. 1540), whose real family name was Rüd, was of German origin, but practised as a physician in Bern from 1509. A fervent supporter of the reformation, he was entrusted (1529) with the task of writing the history of the city of Bern. His Berner Chronik is in the form of annals, and is largely based on original documents. He takes the anti-French point of view, and is specially full on the reformation. See Stierlin's ed. (6 vols. 1825-33), and E. Bloesch's Anshelm und Seine Chronik (1881).

Anson, GEORGE, Lord Anson (1697-1762), British admiral, was born at Shugborough, in Staffordshire. Between 1724 and 1735 he made three expeditions to S. Carolina against the Spaniards. In 1740 he was charged to make war against the Spanish colonies; was victorious, and returned to England in 1743 laden with booty. He utterly defeated the French fleet under La Jonquière in 1747, capturing six men-of-war and four East Indiamen, with £300,000 in specie. In recognition of this service he was raised to the peer1761 was made age, and in admiral of the fleet. See Walter's narrative of Anson's Voyage Round the World (1748); and Life by Sir John Barrow (1839).

Ansonia, tn., New Haven co., Conn., on the Naugatuck R., 12 m. from New Haven, and on the Berkshire and Naugatuck divisions of the New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. Its

261

manufactures include clocks, brass and copper goods, heavy machinery, rollers for paper-making and wheat-milling, electric appliances, etc. Among the chief buildings are the public library, the Y. M. C. A., and the Opera House. The town was named in honor of Anson G. Phelps. Pop. (1910) 15,152.

Ansted, DAVID THOMAS (181480), geologist, was born in London, where his earlier work was done as professor (1840) in King's College; he was later (1845) appointed to the Addiscombe military school. He was the author of Geology (1844), and of popular writings-e.g. Great Stone Book of Nature (1863); Applications of Geology to the Arts and Manufactures (1865); The World we Live in (1870). See Geol. Mag., 1880, p. 336.

Anster, JOHN (1793-1867), first translator into English of Goethe's Faust, was an English barrister and a law professor in Dublin. Published Faust (1835); Faustus, Second Part (1864).

Anstey, F., pseudonym of THOMAS ANSTEY GUTHRIE (1856), born at Kensington. In his undergraduate days he published several short stories, and in 1882 his first book, Vice Versa: a Lesson for Fathers, attained a great success, and was afterward dramatized. Among his subsequent works are The Giant's Robe (1883), The Black Poodle (1884), The Tinted Venus (1885), The Brass Bottle (1900), The Fallen Idol, A Bayard from Bengal (1902), and Only Toys (1903), which have been very popular. Mr. Anstey has contributed to Punch, and many of his papers have been reprinted. He has also written the popular play, The Man from Blankley's.

Anstruther, fishing and seapt. tn., Fifeshire, Scotland, on the Firth of Forth. A fine harbor was completed in 1877. It is the chief fishing-station on the Fife coast. Thomas Chalmers (17801847) and William Tennant (17841848), author of Anster Fair, were born here. Pop. (1901) 1,666.

Ant. Ants are social insects of the order Hymenoptera, to which bees and wasps also belong. The name is sometimes also given to the termites (q.v.). The peculiarity which specially distinguishes the true ants (Formicida) is the shape of the body, the abdomen being connected with the thorax, or anterior region, by a very mobile joint. This gives great power of movement, and frequently is associated with the presence of a sting. Whether the sting is present or absent, there is always a poison bag, containing formic acid, which is either injected into the wound made by the sting, or is merely squirted at

Ant

an attacking foe in the stingless forms.

Other characteristics of the ants are, first, the arrangement of the mouth parts. The mandibles (see INSECTS) are so arranged that they can be used for various industrial purposes without their movements affecting the maxillæ and lower lip, the true feeding organs. Further, ants are also characterized by the existence in each species of at least three types of individuals males, females, and workers, the last type being often divided into castes. The young are helpless maggots, requiring to be fed and tended by the workers. When full grown, these maggots pass into a quiescent pupa stage, from which the perfect insect emerges after an interval.

In conformity with their social habits and instincts, ants always live in communities, and construct nests specially devoted to the purpose of rearing their young. The frequent confusion of ants with termites has arisen from the fact that the nests of the two resemble each other much more closely than those of the ants resemble the chambered structures of their nearest allies, the social bees and wasps. While among the latter the larvæ are always placed in separate cells, the ants keep their young in loose masses, the individuals being moved from one region of the nest to another as the necessities of the case require. Ants are specially sensitive to dryness, and usually construct subterranean galleries and chambers, with the apparent object of obtaining moisture; but the shape and situation of the nest are subject to great variation.

The economy of the ant-nest in its simplest form may be given as follows:-A nest contains numerous eggs, laid by one or more fertile females (queens), which are tended by barren females or workers. The young hatched from these eggs are fed from the mouths of the workers, who are, it is believed, capable of determining the sex of the future insects by the nature, or perhaps the quantity, of the food. The young then become pupa, out of which hatch either winged or wingless adults. The former are males and females, are produced chiefly at certain seasons of the year, and rise from the nest in a smokelike cloud into the air. This is the nuptial flight, during which pairing takes place, and is followed by the death of the males. The females lose their wings, and either return to the original nest, or are apparently capable of founding new nests. In either case they continue to lay fertile eggs for a prolonged period. The wingless forms do not quit the nest save during their ordinary pursuits,

Ant

and, though they are all barren females, occur in various forms, as soldiers, large workers, and small workers. To them all the activities of ant life, save that of reproduction, are committed. This is the simplest statement of ant economy; but it is now known that there are various types of fertile individuals, both males and females, some being, apparently, always without wings. Transitional forms also occur between workers and fertile females.

A remarkable peculiarity of ants, and one that has always attracted attention, is the slave

262

cens, known as the Amazon ant, found on the continent of Europe, is stated to be entirely dependent on its slaves. These ants have mandibles, which serve as efficient weapons in war-for which they display much natural aptitude but which are not fitted for ordinary industrial purposes.

This association of different species of ants as masters and slaves is paralleled by the habit which many display of living in association with totally unrelated insects. The fact that ants domesticate aphids-'ant-cows'has long been known; but modern

Ant

rid of them and others are definitely parasites, some seem to be of the nature of pets.

Ants are so numerous that one or two typical forms only can be mentioned here. The large American black ant, Formica pennsyl vanica, constructs loosely-built, moundlike nests, sometimes reaching three feet in height, in which forty to fifty species of guests have been described. The tropical American leaf-cutting ants (Atta) are among the most destructive of insects. They gather an enormous amount of material in the shape of pieces of leaves, and util

making practised by many species. The large red ant, Formica sanguinea, an inhabitant of both Europe and North America, a courageous and warrior-like species, at times makes raids on other ants, carrying off their pupa to its own nest. It is stated that these forays take place only at those seasons of the year when the pupa are likely to be all workers, and not males or females. It is, at least, certain that the workers hatched from the stolen pupæ remain in the nests of their conquerors, and there perform much of the needful work. The slave-making in the case of this species is not universal, and ants are capable of existing without their slaves; but Polyergus rufes

research is greatly multiplying the number of kinds of insects which may be found in ant-nests. The association with aphids is not very remarkable; for ants are exceedingly fond of the sugary secretion which they are induced to exude under the stroking of an ant's antennæ, and the general characteristics of the plant-lice lead to the belief that they are quite passive in the transaction. Much more remarkable is the large number of beetles found in ant-nests, some of which are fed by the ants, and carried away by them if any circumstance should render a migration necessary. While in some cases these guests are simply tolerated-perhaps because the ants cannot get

ize this with much skill to form 'fungus-beds,' on which they grow singularly pure cultures of a fungus which constitutes their main food supply. The naturalists Bates (Naturalist on the Amazons) and Belt (Naturalist in Nicaragua) have given interesting accounts of these formidable creatures. The wandering ants (Eciton) are interesting South and Central American forms, which are usually blind, and do not make permanent nests, but wander from place to place. The driver ants (Anomma) of West Africa are related forms, which travel in vast hordes, overwhelming everything on their path. For a general account of ants, see the Text-books of Entomology by Packard, Com

Antacids

stock, or Sharp; Lubbock's Ants, Bees, and Wasps; White's Ants and Their Ways; McCook's Agricultural Ant of Texas; articles by Wheeler in The American Naturalist (1902).

Antacids, medicines which counteract acidity by combining with the acid. The acids formed in the stomach during digestion, such as lactic acid and butyric acid, are neutralized by antacids given after meals. Certain alkalis are given with the object of rendering the blood plasma more alkaline: these are the salts of potassium, sodium, ammonium, lithium, magnesium, and calcium. Antacids are administered chiefly in dyspepsia, gout, rheumatism, and uric-acid diathesis.

Antæus, according to Greek tradition, was a Libyan giant of invincible strength as a wrestler, until overcome by Hercules. It was believed that he was the son of Gæa, the earth.

Antagonism, in anatomy, the opposition of one set of muscles to another-e.g., of the flexors and extensors of the arm; in medicine, the counteraction of some drug against others—e.g., atropine shows antagonism to morphine.

Antalcidas, born in the fifth century B.C., was ambassador from Sparta to the Persians in 393-392 and in 388-387, in each instance with the view of strengthening Sparta against Athens by means of Persian support.

On

his return from the second of these missions as admiral of the Spartan fleet, he conducted the war against Athens so successfully as to conclude the Peace of Antalcidas, by which all the cities and islands of Greece were declared independent, except Imbros, Lemnos, and Skythos, and all the Greek cities of Asia Minor were annexed to the Persian empire. He was again sent to Persia in 371 B.C.

Antananarivo, capital of Madagascar. See TANANARIVO.

Antar, or ANTARA, IBN SHEDDAD AL-ABSI, a celebrated Arabian warrior and pre-Islamic poet of the seventh century, author of one of the seven select Arabian poems, called the Moallakat (Eng. trans., Seven Arabic Poems, by Johnson). He is the hero of the group of Arabian romances, Antar, a portion of which was translated into English by Hamilton as Antar: a Bedouin Romance. Antarctic Exploration. history of Antarctic exploration, if the discovery of South Georgia by Vespucci in 1502, and of the South Shetlands by Dirk Gerritsz in 1599, be dismissed as doubtful, is of comparatively Vol. I.-Mar. '12

The

264

recent origin.

In 1739 the French merchant, Captain Bouvet, discovered an island to the southwest of the Cape of Good Hope, which he named Cap de la Circoncision, believing it to be part of the long-sought-for South Continent. Professor Chun of the Valdivia expedition rediscovered the island in 1898, in lat. 54° 26' 4" s. and long. 3° 24' 2" E., and concluded that other islands reported in the neighborhood were identical with Bouvet Island. The next discovery within the Antarctic area was in 1756, when the Spanish vessel Leon sailed round South Georgia, to which the name of San Pedro was given.

The first voyage of importance to the Southern Seas was that of Captain Cook in 1772-5. On Jan. 17, 1773, the Antarctic circle was crossed for the first time, in long. 39° 35′ E. After having, in January, 1774, reached solid pack-ice (in long. 106° 54' w. and lat. 71° 10' s.), he visited and named South Georgia and the Sandwich group.

William Smith, in 1819, sighted a row of islands, which he named the South Shetlands; and Edward Bransfield, in 1820, examined the group as far as 53° w., and nearly to 65° s. In 1821 Captain Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer, discovered the islands immediately north of what is supposed to be the western spur of an Antarctic continent, south of South America. In 1819-21, the Russian captain F. G. von Bellingshausen visited the Sandwich group, and sailed south to lat. 69° 21' s. in long. 2° 15' w. He attained his highest latitude, 69°. 53' s. in long. 92° 19' w., on Jan. 13, 1821, and named the land he saw Peter I. Island; while another point of coast, in lat. 68° 43′ s. and long. 73° 10' w., he called Alexander I. Land.

James Weddell, in 1823, attained the latitude of 74° 15' s. John Biscoe (1830-2) sighted Enderby Land, and discovered Biscoe Island and the land now known as Graham Land; and John Balleny, in 1839, the islands named after him. Dumont d'Urville discovered Joinville Land and Louis Philippe Land in 1838, and Adélie Land and the Côte Clarie in 1840. Charles Wilkes, of the U. S. Navy, sighted other points west of Balleny Island and gave them the name of Wilkes Land, which has a coast line of more than 1,500 miles.

One of the finest expeditions that have explored the South Polar seas left Hobart in December, 1840. It consisted of the

Antarctic Exploration

ships Erebus and Terror, under the command of Captain James Clark Ross, who was accompanied by Dr. (Sir Joseph) Hooker. Possession Islands were discovered, and a landing effected on the largest of the group; while a line of coast, Victoria Land, was traced from Cape North for about 570 miles to Cape Crozier, where it merged into the great ice barrier, which was followed for 250 miles. Several summits and mountain ranges were named, including the mighty volcanoes Erebus (12,400 ft.) and Terror (extinct; 10,900 ft.), and the south magnetic pole was (theoretically) located in lat. 75° 5' s. and long. 154° 8' E. In this region Captain Ross reached lat. 78° 4' s., and the next season lat. 78° 9' 30" s. in long. 161° 27′ w. In 1845 Lieutenant Moore, in the Pagoda, continued Ross's work.

In 1874 the British steamship Challenger, equipped for scientific work and carrying a competent scientific staff, entered the Antarctic regions from Kerguelen Island, near the 80th meridian east, and followed the drift ice easterly as far as Wilkes Termination Land. The Challenger proved the existence of an Antarctic Continent, and that the Antarctic Ocean contains a wealth of animal life. Visits to the Antarctic were also made by whalers about this time, and by Bull in the Antarctic in 1895.

The first winter passed by man within the Antarctic circle was that of 1898, when the Belgian expedition in the Belgica, under command of Captain de Gerlache, was beset by ice in lat. 71° 31' s. and long. 85° 16' W. Carsten E. Borchgrevink, who had visited Victoria Land in the Antarctic, went out again in the Southern Cross in 1898, and wintered at the foot of Cape Adare.

In January, 1902, the British national Antarctic expedition in the Discovery entered the ice pack in the vicinity of Victoria Land, and left that region in February, 1904. Before going into winter quarters (in lat. 77° 50's., long. 166° 42′ E.), the expedition followed the Ross barrier for a considerable distance to the east, finding that in long. 165° it trends to the north. Here a heavily glaciated land, with occasional bare peaks, rises from. the barrier. The coast of this land, named Edward VII. Land by the expedition, was followed as far as lat. 76°, long. 152° 30′. Subsequent explorations showed that Mounts Erebus and Terror are on an island, and that M'Murdo Bay is really a strait.

Antarctic Exploration

On Jan. 1, 1903, Captain R. F. Scott, accompanied by Lieut. (Sir) E. H. Shackleton, sledged southward along the coast of Victoria Land, and carried the British flag to 82° 17′ s., the highest southern latitude then attained. It was found that a great inlet extended to the south for an unknown distance between Victoria Land on the west and Edward VII. Land on the east. Victoria Land itself was proven to be a vast continental plateau, 9,000 feet in height, fringed by a coast range of mountains, broken by large fiords.

In February, 1902, a German Antarctic expedition, under Erich von Drygalski, in the Gauss, reached pack ice in 61° 58' s. lat. and 95° 8′ E. long. Proceeding south, the expedition discovered new land, which was named Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land, and wintered off this land in 89° 48' E. long. and 66° 2' s. lat. Near the coast an inactive volcano, the Gaussberg (1,200 ft.), was observed.

A Swedish expedition in the Antarctic (1901-03), under Otto Nordenskjöld, proved that the west coast of Danco Land is a continuation of Louis Philippe Land; also that Mount Haddington is placed upon an island, and that King Oscar II. Land is continuous with Louis Philippe Land, both being continuous with Graham Land. Nordenskjöld's ship, the Antarctic, was crushed by ice, and sank; but all the party, having wintered on Bouvet Island, were rescued with Nordenskjöld by an Argentine gunboat commanded by Captain Irizar.

A Scottish national Antarctic expedition, led by Dr. W. S. Bruce, in the Scotia (1902-04), explored in its first season 4,000 miles of ocean, from 17°-45° w. long. in 70° 25′ s. lat., wintering in the South Orkneys. In its second season it reached the southeastern extremity of the Weddell Sea, and discovered that a great barrier of inland ice, believed to be part of the Antarctic continent, is 600 miles north of its supposed position. The expedition also dredged in Ross' Deep, which proved to be 2,600 fathoms.

In 1904-05 a French expedition under Dr. Jean Charcot, in the Français, explored the Palmer archipelago. In 1908-10 Dr. Charcot.made another expedition in the Pourquoi Pas, in which he pushed still farther south, discovering new land, which he named for his father Charcot Land.

One of the most successful
VOL. I.-Mar. '13

264 A

Antarctic expeditions was that of Lieut. (Sir) E. H. Shackleton in the Nimrod, who returned in 1909, after a journey of 1,700 miles. Shackleton reached 88° 23' s., or within 111 miles of the South Pole, on Jan. 9, 1909. Novel features of this expedition were a motor car with runners, and Siberian ponies, which proved of little practical service. however. The south magnetic pole was located (Jan. 16, 1909) at 72° 25′ s. and 155° 16′ E. Mount Erebus, 13,500 feet high, was also ascended.

On Jan. 1, 1912, no less than five expeditions were within the Antarctic circle, as follows: (1) the Fram, in command of Capt. Roald Amundsen, from Christiania, Norway, in August, 1910; (2) the Terra Nova, under Capt. Robert F. Scott, R. N., from London, June 1, 1910; (3) the Deutschland, Capt. Wilhelm Filchner, from Bremen, Germany, in August, 1910; (4) the Aurora, Dr. Douglas Mawson, from Cardiff, Wales, Aug. 16, 1911, and later from Sydney, Australia, in December, 1911; and (5) the Kainan Maru, Capt. Shirase, from Yokohama, Nov. 29, 1910, and from Wellington, New Zealand, Feb. 11, 1911. By March 1, 1913, all these expeditions had returned, closing a large and fruitful chapter in Polar exploration.

(1) DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH POLE. First to depart, the Fram was the first to report (at Hobart, Tasmania, March 7, 1912), bringing the news that on Dec. 14, 1911, Captain Amundsen, with four comrades, had attained the South Pole, and had remained there for four days. The journey from his base, in 164° w. long, and 78° 38' s. lat., had occupied 60 days, from Oct. 20.

Having wintered-the longest winter ever passed by man in the Antarctic-in a dugout in the drifted snow, communicating directly with the hut, and affording work and storage rooms, while tents with basements six feet deep accommodated the dogs, Amundsen's party of five left Framheim on Oct. 20, 1911, with provisions for 120 days. The course was due south. On Nov. 11 land was sighted dead ahead, and on Nov. 17 the ascent between the mighty peaks of South Victoria Land begansome of the way climbing glaciers so steep that 20 dogs were required to pull the loads. The first night camp was pitched at 2,000 feet altitude; the second at twice that; and on the fourth day later, having covered 17 nautical miles and ascended

Antarctic Exploration

5,600 feet, camp was made at an altitude of 10,600 feet.

Through a heavily glaciated, mountainous country, peaks appeared at levels of from 9,000 to 15,000 feet, the highest being Neilsen Mountain. Over the 'Devil's Dancing Room' the party reached the greatest height, 10,750 feet, on Dec. 6. From this point an absolutely flat plain extended to 88° 25', thus confirming Shackleton's observations at his last camp (88° 23′). Each day 15 nautical miles were covered, with ideal sledging and beautiful weather, until on Dec. 14 the South Pole was attained.

The Pole was located upon a vast white, snow-covered plain, slightly descending to the south, and at an elevation of about 10,750 feet. The mean temperature at the Pole was 15 degrees below zero Fahrenheit, and the lowest on the journey thither, 34 below. During the greater part of the four days near the Pole the sun shone clear, and the wind was light from the southeast. The last station where observations were taken was at 89° 59' S., and the advance was pushed about nine miles farther. The camp was named Polheim, and upon departure the tent was left standing, with the Norwegian flag flying. To the plateau was given the name King Haakon VII, and to the lofty mountain extending from the barrier far inland, and possibly an Antarctic extension of the Andes, Queen Maud's Range.

The journey to Framheim, the base station, was made in 39 days (ending Jan. 25), at an average of 19-20 miles per day. Here it was learned that during the absence of the polar party, Captain Neilsen had taken the Fram to 78° 41′ s., the farthest south attained by any vessel-thus gaining for the Fram (q. v.) the unique distinction of the farthest north and the farthest south of any ship.

During the absence of the polar party, Lieutenant Prestrud had also made a reconnoissance to the eastward, across the interior of King Edward VII.'s Land, coming out again upon the front of the Ross ice barrier at 77° 34', and defining the outline of much wholly new territory. Skua gulls were seen. Amundsen and his comrades, Hansen, Wisting, Hassel, and Bjaaland, performed the entire journey without illness or serious accident; and though forced to eat some of their dogs, I did this from choice rather than necessity. On his return Amundsen was greeted with congratulations from King Haakon of