638 NOTES Defence of the House of Lords. This, like the preceding speech, is addressed to an audience requiring no preliminary explanation of the question. The argument is based on example, on authority, and on direct Analyze the structure and make a Brief of the argument. experience. Compare the tone and style with Mr. Balfour's speech. 272. Mr. Bryce, James, statesman and scholar, and one-time British Ambassador to the United States. Selections from a number of his writings appear in this volume. His chief work is "The American Commonwealth." REFUTATION Refutation consists in pointing out the errors of statement or fallacies of reasoning in the arguments of an opponent. Sometimes the process is purely destructive, as in the beginning of "Council Government versus Professor Huxley's Lectures" or in "The 27 or in Mayor Government Intellectual Powers of Woman." Sometimes it is hard to distinguish from direct argument, as the disproof of an opponent's statement may involve the introduction of evidence in support of one's own contention. The latter is true of "The Mathematician and the Engineer " in which the writer, while he is denying the contention that the engineer is dependent on the mathematician, supplies evidence to show that the engineer is independent of the mathematician. The same can be said of ex-President Taft's argument on the Monroe Doctrine which, in the course of overthrowing a series of objections, establishes the positive value of the Doctrine. The writer of this article The Intellectual Powers of Woman. undertakes no more than to establish that the common assumption of woman's natural and necessary intellectual inferiority is founded on prejudice and fallacy. He does not attempt to assert the intellectual equality of woman with man because his purpose is strictly refutation. After an introductory explanation of the view which he wishes to combat, he examines the argument that women are incapable of the highest intellectual attainments because they have never yet displayed them. He tries to reduce this argument to an absurdity by a series of analogies from history and by emphasizing some neglected factors in the situation. He then points out how, by a perversion of reason, the idea has gained currency of woman's inability to attain even the middle heights, and this prejudice he opposes by an appeal to facts. Note the means by which the threads of the argument are held together. How is the conclusion of the first part of the discussion marked? Observe the frequent reiteration of the central idea and the use of summary in the final stages of the argument. What is gained by the repetition? Is it ever excessive? What are the chief stylistic virtues of the essay? 278. Disquisitiones Arithmetica (1801), a work which first attracted attention to Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) who later became eminent as 639 283. Fénelon, François (1651-1715), French bishop, author of a famous educational novel, "Télémaque.” Mrs. Somerville, Mary (1780-1872), held a dignified position among British mathematicians. Mme. Kovalewski, Sonia (1850-1891), a Russian woman, was professor of mathematics at the University of Stockholm and attained the highest honors of her profession. 284. Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646-1716), the great German philosopher and mathematician. 285. ex vi termini, from the very meaning of the expression. 289. Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804), probably the greatest philosopher of modern times. 290. Mr. Gosse, Edmund, a distinguished living English critic. Mary Cassatt, a painter of American birth residing in Paris. She exhibited in New York in 1898. Mme. Demont-Breton, Virginie, whose paintings have won high prizes and are to be found in many European galleries. 291. Hermann Grimm (1828-1901), a well-known German critic. The Mathematician and the Engineer. In both this and the next selection a certain view is combated by an attempt to establish the opposite view, so that it is not easy to distinguish these from direct argument. the argument that the services of the mathematician are becoming of less importance to the engineer because the engineer is acquiring mastery of Criticise mathematical methods. Are any of the points too hastily dismissed? Is the chief contention satisfactorily supported? 294. Lord Kelvin, William Thomson (1824-1907), the great physicist. Popular Control of National Wealth. This illustrates a method of summarizing the points of an argument and then refuting objections. you approve of the style of this article in respect both to diction and sentenceform? Do PERSUASION Persuasion is not to be regarded as a special section in an argument, but as a quality which pervades its entire fabric. It is nothing but the art of so handling the material, so adapting it to the audience as most readily to secure the desired effect. Persuasive skill is not, as is sometimes imagined, merely a matter of emotional appeal. It is dependent on all the factors which are termed psychological, on a knowledge of the prejudices and interests of the audience, of the motives by which they can be influenced, and of the ideals to which they will respond. A knowledge of these factors determines the entire conduct of an argument the arrangement of its parts, the throwing of the emphasis, and even the kind of evidence that shall be used. The test and on "The Social Value of The two addresses given under Persuasion represent the appeal to an audience in the simplest form. Notice the manner in which the speaker gets into touch with his hearers and how, once their attention is gained, he carries them up to the higher moral levels. Both these addresses are excellent examples of how elevation of tone may be attained by a careful selection of common words. ELEMENTS IN COMBINATION The Monroe Doctrine. This is the first of a series of lectures delivered by ex-President Taft on the subject, "The United States and Peace." How does the argument presented in this article relate itself to the general subject? - To what extent is the structure of the article reducible to the conventional form of an argument? Does the historical review with which the Introduction opens have a direct bearing on the argument? Reduce the four questions involved in the discussion to a single dominant issue. Observe that Mr. Tait defines the limits of the Monroe Doctrine after stating the objections of its opponents. What is the advantage of this arrangement? Examine the argument against our coöperating with the A. B. C. powers in the light of events of 1914. 308. The Holy Alliance was formed by the countries mentioned, in 1815, immediately after the downfall of Napoleon, for the purpose of counteracting the movement against the established or so-called Legitimate monarchs to which the career of Napoleon had given a strong impetus. 309. the policy was insisted on, etc. This dispute arose in 1895, during Cleveland's second term, and was settled in November, 1896. Mr. Olney was then Secretary of State. 310. Canning, George (1770-1827), an influential statesman, at various times Foreign Secretary in the British Cabinet. His interest in establishing the Monroe Doctrine is clearly and forcibly expressed by a sentence in one of his speeches (December 12, 1826) in which he explains his reason for recognizing the independence of the Spanish-American republics: "I resolved that if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old." INFORMAL ARGUMENT The distinction between formal and informal argument is somewhat arbitrary and no sharp line between the two can be drawn. But an analysis of the selections under each head will reveal a considerable difference in spirit and method. Formal argument is commonly concerned with questions capable of direct proof or refutation and requires that its contentions shall be supported by material evidence, while informal argument, being usually the expression of an opinion or a conviction, needs to be justified only by a process of general or theoretical reasoning. The latter is the form of argument which people are most commonly called upon to employ and its most familiar illustration is to be found in newspaper editorials. Is Agriculture Declining? In this passage Mr. Butterfield states his reasons for doubting the frequent assertions about the decline of rural population. He does not attempt to prove that the population is not declining, but only presents a series of considerations which make his supposition highly plausible. Study the structure of the paragraph. What is the effect of the first and last sentences? Does the beginning seem too abrupt? 324. Josiah Strong states, etc. It is desirable in expository and argumentative writing to make the references more specific. This writer commits the same fault in the passage on p. 327. State Control and the Individual. Note the use of concrete and lively illustration in aiding an abstract argument. The Organization of Farmers and The Organization of Labor. The first of these arguments is addressed to an audience of farmers, the second not to trade-unions, but to students of government. Compare the two for the kind of argument employed and the kind of motives appealed to. Observe the thoroughgoing logic of the second, the fearless facing of all the facts, the acceptance of every condition that the defence of trade-unions implies, and how the writer turns his concessions to the advantage of his argument. See the note on Persuasion, p. 639. Direct Presidential Nominations. The paragraphing and the sentence structure of this article should be subjected to careful criticism. DESCRIPTION The elements that chiefly contribute to the value of a description are minute and accurate observation of detail and the unification of details to form a total impression. Unity in a word picture depends on the same principles as it does in any work of art - the selection of salient features and their arrangement in a harmonious composition around some feature of central interest. A definite order of procedure, which is termed point of view, will assure the coherence of the parts. One of the obvious means is successive arrangement in time or space, but sometimes an instantaneous view is desirable and may be presented by means of what is called the dominant or fundamental image. But unity in description generally requires more than an orderly plan. Being directed toward an æsthetic end, it depends on the creation and the preservation of a mood. The attainment of a unified emotional effect is characterized as dominant tone. SENSES Sunrise at Port-of-Spain and A Tropical Sunset. Both these subjects are sufficiently hackneyed. How does the writer give them reality and individuality? What is the general impression produced by each? What are the means by which the effects of unity and totality are attained? Study the vocabulary for avoidance of monotony and the expression of fine distinctions. Does the expression ever seem overwrought? Cloud Effects. Ruskin is here describing a number of different effects. Does he unify them all in a single impression? How? Does he have unity of structure? See how the point of view is indicated and maintained, how the transitions are marked. What is the effect of the conclusion? Compare the style of the sentences here with those in Lafcadio Hearn. What do they contribute to the emotional effect? Notice the phrase "foun dationless and inaccessible" and compare the notes on pp. 626 and 634. What is the effect of beginning successive sentences with and or and then? 342. Atlantis, a fabled island among the Greeks lying in the ocean outside the Pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar). The Yellow-breasted Chat. The interest of this passage is in its attempt to suggest a sound by imitation. In "Kusa-Hibari" (p. 394) a sound is described by its effect on the mood. See also "The Sound of the Vacuumcleaner in the Appendix. 344. skimmerton, a mock ceremony once common in parts of England in which mock music was a prominent feature. Odors of Vegetation. In this description observe the selection of one dominant element to characterize the odor of each season. 346. "balm of a thousand flowers." Cf. "Merry Wives of Windsor," Act v, Scene 5, line 56, " With juice of balm and every precious flower." The Sound of Summer. This is an example of the most acutely sensitive description. Does it impress you as being fanciful? See The Physica! Basis of Life," p. 94. The Ploughing. This is an analysis of a complex of sensations. LANDSCAPES Cape Cod. This is striking for the boldness of the fundamental image and the detail with which it is carried out. The Upper Mississippi. The description of a vast panorama is here generalized by means of a series of rapid strokes. 353. Hennepin, Louis (c. 1640-c. 1701), the companion of La Salle in his explorations of Illinois and the Mississippi River. He made a voyage himself from the mouth of the Illinois River up to the site of Minneapolis. In the Sahel. This is a panorama done in greater detail than the preceding, but here also the generalizing method is important. Observe how the writer conceives his description in terms of the painter's art - his references to color, design, and composition. What elements of technique in this description are outside the scope of the painter? What is the dominant tone of this description? How is its prominence sustained? What is the force of the opening sentence in relation to the dominant tone? What is |
