annotated translation of the Bible. He gave further support to the Jansenists, and when he died (May 1, 1727) his grave in the cemetery of St Médard became a place of fanatical pilgrimage and wonder-working. The king ordered the churchyard to be closed in 1732, but earth which had been taken from the grave proved equally efficacious and helped to encourage the disorder which marked the close of the Jansenist struggle (see JANSENISM). Lives by B. de la Bruyère and B. Doyen (1731). See also P. F. Matthieu, Histoire des miracles et des convulsionnaires de St Médard; M. Tollemache, French Jansenists (London, 1893). PARIS, LOUIS Philippe AlberT D'ORLÉANS, COMTE DE (1838-1894), son of the duc d'Orléans, the eldest son of King Louis Philippe, was born on the 24th of August 1838. His mother was the princess Helen of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a Protestant. By the death of his father through a carriage accident in 1842, the count, who was then only four years of age, became heir-apparent to the French throne. On the deposition of Louis Philippe in 1848, the duchess of Orléans struggled to secure the succession to her son, and bore him through an excited populace to the chamber of deputies. The chamber itself was soon invaded, however, and the Republic proclaimed. The Orleanists were driven into exile, and the duchess proceeded with her two sons, the comte de Paris and the duc de Chartres, first to Eisenach in Saxony, and then to Claremont in Surrey. After his mother's death in 1858 the count made a long foreign tour. In 1861 he and his brother accompanied their uncle, the prince de Joinville, to the United States. The brothers were attached to the staff of General McClellan, commanding the " Army of the Potomac." In April 1862 the count took part in the siege of Yorktown, and was present at the action of Williamsburg on the 5th of May. He was also with McClellan at the battle of Fair Oaks, and was personally engaged in the sanguinary battle at Gaines Mill on the 27th of June. When difficulties arose between France and the United States with regard to the affairs of Mexico, the Orléans princes withdrew from the American army and returned to Europe. During the winter of 1862-1863 the count took a special interest in the organization of the Lancashire Cotton Famine Fund, and contributed an article to the Revue des deux mondes entitled "Christmas Week in Lancashire." On the 30th of May 1864 he married his cousin, the princess Marie Isabelle, daughter of the duc de Montpensier; and his son and heir, the duc d'Orléans, was born at York House, Twickenham, in 1869. The count was refused permission to serve in the Franco-Prussian War, but after the fall of Napoleon III. he returned to France. Abstaining from putting himself forward, he lived quietly on his estates, which had been restored to him by a vote of the Assembly. In August 1873 there was an important political conference at Frohsdorf, the result of which was that a fusion was effected, by which the comte de Paris agreed to waive his claims to the throne in favour of those of the comte de Chambord. By the death of the latter in 1883 the count became undisputed head of the house of Bourbon; but he did not show any disposition to push his claims. The popularity of the Orléans family, however, was shown on the occasion of the marriage of the comte de Paris's eldest daughter with the duke of Braganza, son of the king of Portugal, in May 1886. This so alarmed the French government that it led to a new law of expulsion, by which direct claimants to the French throne and their heirs were banished from France (June 11, 1886). The comte de Paris again retired to England, taking up his abode at Sheen House, near Richmond Park. Here he devoted his leisure to his favourite studies. In addition to his work Les Associations ouvrières en Angleterre, which was published in 1869 and translated into English, the count edited the letters of his father, and published at intervals in eight volumes his Histoire de la guerre civile en Amérique. In his later years the count seriously compromised the prospects of the Royalist party by the relations into which he entered with General Boulanger. He died on the 8th of September 1894. PARIS, the capital of France and the department of Seine, situated on both banks of the Seine, 233 m. from its mouth and 285 m. S.S.E. of London by rail and steamer via Dover and | Calais, in 48° 50′ 14′′ N., 2° 20′ 14′′ E. (observatory). It occupies the centre of the so-called Paris basin, which is traversed by the Seine from south-east to north-west, open towards the west, and surrounded by a line of Jurassic heights. The granitic substratum is covered by Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary formations; and at several points building materials-freestone, limestone or gypsum-have been laid bare by erosion. It is partly, indeed, to the existence of such quarries in its neighbourhood, and to the vicinity of the grain-bearing regions of the Beauce and Brie that the city owes its development. Still more important is its position at the meeting-place of the great natural highways leading from the Mediterranean to the ocean by way of the Rhone valley and from Spain northwards over the lowlands of western France. The altitude of Paris varies between 80 ft. (at the Point du Jour, the exit of the Seine from the fortifications) and 420 ft. at the hill of Montmartre in the north of the city; the other chief eminence is the hill of Ste Geneviève, on the left bank. Since 1840 Paris has been completely surrounded by a wall, which since 1860 has served also as the limit for the collection of municipal customs dues (ectros). Proposals are constantly being brought forward to demolish this wall-which, with its talus, is encircled by a broad and deep ditch-either entirely or at least from the Point du Jour, where the Seine intersects the wall below the city, to Pantin, so as to extend the limits of the city as far as the Seine, which rurs almost parallel with the wall for that distance. Within the wall the area of the city is 19,279 acres; the river runs through it from east to west in a broad curve for a distance of nearly 8 m. Climate.-Paris has a fairly uniform climate. The mean temperature, calculated from observations extending over fifty years (18411890), is 49°-8 F. The highest reading (observed in July 1874 and The monthly means for the fifty years 1841-1890 were: January again in July 1881) is 101° F., the lowest (in December 1879) is -14°359, February 38°-3, March 42.3. April 495, May 55°-6, June 617, July 64.6, August 63.5, September 582, October 49° 8, November 40:2, December 36°-6. The Seine freezes when the tem from Bercy to Auteuil in the winters of 1819-1820, 1829-1830, perature falls below 18°. It was frozen in nearly its whole extent 1879-1880 and 1890-1891. Rain falls, on an average, on about 200 days, the average quantity in a year being between 22 and 23 in. The rainfall from December to April inclusive is less than the average. while the rainfall from May to November exceeds the average lor the whole year. The driest month is February, the rainiest Junethe rainfall for these months being respectively 1-3 in. and 2-3 in. The prevailing winds are those from the south, south-west and westThe general character of the climate, somewhat continental in winter and oceanic in summer, has been more closely observed since the three observatories at different heights on the Eiffel Tower were added in 1889 to the old-established ones of the parks of St Maur and Montsouris. The observatory at the old church-tower St Jacques (16th century) in the centre of the city, and since 1896 a municipal estab of the transparency and purity of the air. There are barely 100 days lishment, is of special interest on account of the study made there in the year when the air is very clear. Generally the city is covered by floating mists, possibly 1500 ft. in thickness. During the prevalence of north-easterly winds the sky is most obscured, since on that side lies the greatest number of factories with smoking chimneys. Defences.-Paris, described in a recent German account as the greatest fortress in the world, possesses three perfectly distinct rings of defences. The two inner, the enceinte and the circle of detached forts around it, are of the bastioned type which French engineers of the Noizet school favoured; they were built in the time of Louis Philippe, and with very few additions sustained the siege of 1870-71. The outer works, of more modern type, forming an entrenched camp which in area is rivalled only by the Antwerp system of defences, were built after the Franco-German War. The enceinte ("the fortifications" of the guide-books) is of plain bastion trace, without ravelins but with a deep dry ditch (escarp, but not counterscarp revetted). It is nearly 22 m. in perimeter and has 93 bastions, 67 gates and 9 railway passages. The greater part of the enceinte has, however, been given up, and a larger one projected-as at Antwerp-by connecting up the old detached forts. The observatories of the Tour St Jacques and of Montsouris belong to the municipality of Paris; that of St Maur depends on the Central Bureau of Meteorology, a national institution " The new works are 11 m. from the Louvre and 8 from the enceinte. They form a circle of 75 m. circumference, and an army which attempted to invest Paris to-day would have to be at least 500,000 strong, irrespective of all field and covering forces. The actual defence of the works, apart from troops temporarily collected in the fortified area, would need some 170,000 men only. These forts, which endured the siege in 1870-71, have a | Villeneuve-St-Georges position, which command the Seine and perimeter of about 34 m. Each is designed as a miniature Yères country as far as Brie and Corbeil. The left of the southfortress with ample casemates and high cavaliers, the tenailles western section is formed by the powerful Fort Palaiseau and its and ravelins, however, being as a rule omitted. On the north annexe-batteries, which command the Yvette valley. Behind side there are three forts (connected by a plain parapet) around Fort Palaiseau, midway between it and Fort Châtillon, is the St Denis, one of these being arranged to control an inundation. Verrières group, overlooking the valley of the Bièvre. To the Next, to the right, or eastward, comes Fort Aubervillers, which right of Palaiseau on the high ground towards Versailles are commands the approaches north of the wood of Bondy. These other works, and around Versailles itself is a semi-circle of four works lie in relatively low ground. The eastern works are batteries right and left of the armoured Fort St Cyr. In various situated on higher ground (300-350 ft.); they consist of four positions around Marly there are some seven or eight batteries. forts and various small redoubts, and command the approaches Topography. The development of Paris can be traced outfrom the great wood of Bondy. In low ground again at the wards in approximately concentric rings from the Gallo-Roman narrowest point of the great loop of the Marne (near St Maur- town on the Île de la Cité to the fortifications which now form les-Fosses) there are two redoubts connected by a parapet, and its boundary. A line of boulevards known as the Grands between the Seine and the Marne, in advance of their confluence, Boulevards, coinciding in great part with ramparts of the 14th, Fort Charenton. On the south side of the city, hardly more 16th and 17th centuries, encloses most of old Paris, a portion of than a mile from the enceinte, is a row of forts, Ivry, Bicêtre, which extends southwards beyond the Boulevard St Germain. Montrouge, Vanves and Issy, solidly constructed works in them- Outside the Grands Boulevards lie the faubourgs or old suburbs, selves but, as was shown in 1870, nearly useless for the defences round which runs another enceinte of boulevards-boulevards of the city against rifled guns, as (with the exception of Bicêtre) extérieurs-corresponding to ramparts of the 18th century. they are overlooked by the plateau of Châtillon. On the west Beyond them other and more modern suburbs incorporated side of Paris is the famous fortress of Mont Valérien, standing with the city after 1860 stretch to the boulevards which line the 536 ft. above the sea and about 450 above the river. This present fortifications. On the north, cast and south these are completes the catalogue of the inner fort-line. It is strengthened commercial or industrial in character, inhabited by the working by two groups of works which were erected in "provisional ' classes and petite bourgeoisie, while here and there there are still form during the siege,' and afterwards reconstructed as perma- areas devoted to market gardening; those on the west are resinent forts-Hautes Bruyères on the plateau of Villejuif, 1 m. dential centres for the upper classes (Auteuil and Passy). Of south of Fort Bicêtre, and the Châtillon fort and batteries which the faubourgs of Paris those to the north and east are mainly now prevent access to the celebrated plateau that overlooks commercial (Faubourgs St Denis, St Martin, Poissonnière) or inParis from a height of 600 ft., and of which the rear batteries dustrial (Faubourgs du Temple and St Antoine) in character, while sweep almost the whole of the ground between Bicêtre and Mont to the west the Faubourg St Honoré, the Champs Élysées and Valérien. the Faubourg St Germain are occupied by the residences of the upper classes of the population. The chief resorts of business and pleasure are concentrated within the Grands Boulevards, and more especially on the north bank of the Seine. No uniformity marks the street-plan of this or the other quarters of the city. One broad and almost straight thoroughfare bisects it under various names from Neuilly (W.N.W.) to Vincennes (E.S.E.). Within the limits of the Grands Boulevards it is The entrenched camp falls into three sections-the north, the known as the Rue de Rivoli (over 2 m. in length) and the Rue east and the south-west. The forts (of the general 1874-1875 St Antoine and runs parallel with and close to the Seine from the French type, see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT) have from Place de la Concorde to the Place de la Bastille. From the 24 to 60 heavy guns and 600 to 1200 men each, the redoubts, Eastern station to the observatory Paris is traversed N.N.E. batteries and annexe-batteries generally 200 men and 6 guns. and S.S.W. for 2 m. by another important thoroughfareIn the northern section a ridge crosses the northern extremities the Boulevard de Strasbourg continued as the Boulevard de of the St Germain-Argenteuil loop of the Seine after the fashion Sébastopol, as the Boulevard du Palais on the Île de la Cité, of the armature of a horse-shoe magnet; on this ridge (about and on the south bank as the Boulevard St Michel. The 560 ft.) is a group of works, named after the village of Cormeilles, line of the Grands Boulevards from the Madeleine to the commanding the lower Seine, the Argenteuil peninsula and the Bastille, by way of the Place de l'Opéra, the Porte St Denis lower ground towards the Oise. At an average distance of and the Porte St Martin (two triumphal arches erected in the 5 m. from St Denis lie the works of the Montlignon-Domont latter half of the 17th century in honour of Louis XIV.) and the position (about 600-670 ft.), which sweep all ground to the Place de la République stretches for nearly 3 m. It contains north, cross their fire with the Cormeilles works, and deny most of the large cafés and several of the chief theatres, and the plateau of Montmorency-Méry-sur-Oise to an enemy. At though its gaiety and animation are concentrated at the western Écouen, on an isolated hill, are a fort and a redoubt, and to the end-in the Boulevards des Italiens, des Capucines and de la right near these Fort Stains and two batteries on the ceinture Madeleine-it is as a whole one of the most celebrated avenues railway. The important eastern section consists of the Vaujours in the world. On the right side of the river may also be menposition, the salient of the whole fortress, which commands the tioned the Rue Royale, from the Madeleine to the Place de la countryside to the north as far as Dammartin and Claye, crosses Concorde; the Malesherbes and Haussmann boulevards, the its fire with Stains on the one hand and Villiers on the other, and first stretching from the Place Madeleine north-west to the itself lies on a steep hill at the outer edge of the forest of Bondy fortifications, the second from the Grands Boulevards near the which allows free and concealed communication between the Place de l'Opéra nearly to the Place de l'Étoile; the Avenue de fort and the inner line of works. The Vaujours works are l'Opéra, which unites the Place du Palais Royal, approximately armoured. Three miles to the right of Vaujours is Fort Chelles, the central point of Paris, with the Place de l'Opéra; the Rue de which bars the roads and railways of the Marne valley. On the la Paix, connecting the Place Vendôme with the Place de l'Opéra, other side of the Marne, on ground made historic by the events and noted for its fashionable dress-making establishments, and of 1870, are forts Villiers and Champigny, designed as a bridge- the Rue Auber and Rue du Quatre Septembre, also terminating head to enable the defenders to assemble in front of the Marne. in the Place de l'Opéra, in the vicinity of which are found some To the right of these is a fort near Boissy-St-Leger, and on the right of the whole section are the armoured works of the The plateau of Mont Avron on the east side, which was provisionally fortified in 1870, is not now defended. 2 The word boulevard means "bulwark or fortification and thus has direct reference to the old ramparts. But since the middle of the 19th century the title has been applied to new thoroughfares not traced on the site of an old enceinte. of the finest shops in Paris; the Rue St Honoré running parallel with the Rue de Rivoli, from the Rue Royale to the Central Markets; the Rue de Lafayette, one of the longest streets of Paris, traversing the town from the Opera to the Bassin de la Villette; the Boulevard Magenta, from Montmartre to the Place de la République; and the Rue de Turbigo, from this place to the Halles Centrales. On the left side of the river the main thoroughfare is the Boulevard St Germain, beginning at the Pont Sully, skirting the Quartier Latin, the educational quarter on the north, and terminating at the Pont de la Concorde after traversing a quarter mainly devoted to ministries, embassies and other official buildings and to the residences of the noblesse. Squares.-Some of the chief squares have already been mentioned. The finest is the Place de la Concorde, laid out under Louis XV. by J. A. Gabriel and noted as the scene of the execution of Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette and many other victims of the Revolution. The central decoration consists of an obelisk from the great temple at Luxor in Upper Egypt, presented to Louis Philippe in 1831 by Mehemet Ali, and flanked by two monumental fountains. The formation of the Place Vendôme was begun towards the end of the 17th century. In the middle there is a column surmounted by a statue of Napoleon I. and decorated with plates of bronze on which are depicted scenes from the campaign of 1805. The Place de l'Etoile is the centre of twelve avenues radiating from it in all directions. The chief of these is the fashionable Avenue des Champs Elysées which connects it with the Place de la Concorde; while on the other side the Avenue de la Grande Armée leads to the fortifications, the two forming a section of the main artery of Paris; the well-wooded Avenue du Bois de Boulogne forms the threshold of the celebrated park of that name. In the centre of the Place, the Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, the largest triumphal arch in the world (162 ft. high by 147 ft. wide), commemorates the military triumphs of the Revolu tionary and Napoleonic troops. The finest of the sculptures on its façades is that representing the departure of the volunteers in 1792 by François Rude. The Place de la République, in which stands a huge statue of the Republic, did not receive its present form till 1879. The Place de la Bastille stands a little to the east of the site of the famous state prison. It contains the Colonne de Juillet erected in memory of those who fell in the revolution of July 1830. The Place du Carrousel, enclosed within the western wings of the Louvre and so named from a revel given there by Louis XIV., was enlarged about the middle of the 19th century. The triumphal arch on its west side commemorates the victories of 1805 and formed the main entrance to the Tuileries palace (see below). Facing the arch there is a stone pyramid forming the background to a statue of Gambetta. Other squares are the Place des Victoires, dating from 1685, with the equestrian statue of Louis XIV.; the Place des Vosges, formerly Place Royale, formed by Henry IV. on the site of the old Tournelles Palace and containing the equestrian statue of Louis XIII.; the Place de l'Hôtel de Ville, once the Place de Grève and the scene of many state executions from the beginning of the 14th century till 1830; the Place du Châtelet, on the site of the prison of the Grand Châtelet, pulled down in 1802, with a fountain and a column commemorative of victories of Napoleon, and the Place de la Nation decorated with a fountain and a bronze group representing the Triumph of the Republic, and with two columns of 1788 surmounted by statues of St Louis and Philip Augustus, corresponding at the east of the city to the Place de l'Etoile at the west. South of the Seine are the Place St Michel, adorned with a monumental fountain, and one of the great centres of traffic in Paris; the Carrefour de l'Observatoire, with the monument to Francis Jarnier, the explorer, and the statue of General Ney standing on the spot where he was shot; the Place du Panthéon; the Place Denfert Rochereau, adorned with a colossal lion symbolizing the defence of Belfort in 1871; the Place St Sulpice, with a modern fountain embellished with the statues of the preachers Bossuet, Fénelon, Massillon and Fléchier; the Place Vauban, behind the Invalides; and the Place du Palais Bourbon, in front of the Chamber of Deputies. On the Ile de la Cité in front of the cathedral is the Place du Parvis-Notre-Dame, with the equestrian statue of Charlemagne. Besides those already mentioned, Paris possesses other monumental fountains of artistic value. The Fontaine des Innocents in the Square des Innocents belonged to the church of that name demolished in 1786. It is a graceful work of the Renaissance designed by Pierre Lescot and retains sculptures by Jean Goujon. On its reconstruction on the present site other carvings were added by Augustin Pajou. A fountain of the first half of the 18th century in the Rue de Grenelle is remarkable for its rich decoration, while another in the Avenue de l'Observatoire is an elaborate modern work, the central group of which by J. B. Carpeaux represents the four quarters of the globe supporting the terrestrial sphere. The Fontaine de Medicis (17th century) in the Luxembourg garden is a work of Salomon Debrosse in the Doric style; the fountain in the Place Louvois (1844) representing the rivers of France is by Louis Visconti. In 1872 Sir Richard Wallace gave the municipality fifty drinking-fountains which are placed in different parts of the city. The Seine.-The Seine flows for nearly 8 m. through Paris. As it enters and as it leaves the city it is crossed by a viaduct used by the circular railway and for ordinary traffic; that of Point du Jour has two storeys of arches. Three bridges-the Passerelle de l'Estacade, between the Île St Louis and the right bank, the Pont des Arts and the Passerelle Debilly (close to the Trocadéro)—are for foot passengers only; all the others are for carriages as well. The most famous, and in its actual state the oldest, is the Pont Neuf, begun in 1578, the two portions of which rest on the extremity of the island called La Cité, the point at which the river is at its widest (863 ft.). On the embankment below the Pont Neuf stands the equestrian statue of Henry IV. Between La Cité and the left bank the width of the lesser channel is reduced to 95 ft. The river has a width of 540 ft. as it enters Paris and of 446 ft. as it leaves it. After its entrance to the city it passes under the bridges of Tolbiac, Bercy and Austerlitz, that of Sully, those of Marie and Louis Philippe between the Île St Louis and the right bank; that of La Tournelle between the Ile St Louis and the left bank; that of St Louis between the lle St Louis and La Cité. The Cité communicates with the right bank by the Pont d'Arcole, the Pont Notre-Dame, built on foundations of the 15th century, and the Pont au Change, owing its name to the shops of the money-changers and goldsmiths which bordered its medieval predecessor; with the left bank by that of the Archevêché, the so-called Pont au Double, the Petit Pont and the Pont St Michel, the original of which was built towards the end of the 14th century. Below the Pont Neuf come the Pont des Arts, Pont du Carrousel, Pont Royal (a fine stone structure leading to the Tuileries), and those of Solferino, La Concorde, Alexandre III. (the finest and most modern bridge in Paris, its foundation-stone having been laid by the czar Nicholas II. in 1896), Invalides, Alma, Iéna (opposite the Champ de Mars), Passy, Grenelle and Mirabeau. The Seine has at times caused disastrous floods in the city, as in January 1910. (See SEINE.) The houses of Paris nowhere abut directly on the river banks, which in their whole extent from the bridge of Austerlitz to Passy are protected by broad embankments or " quais." At the foot of these lie several ports for the unloading and loading of goods, &c,-on the right side Bercy for wines, La Rapée ict timber, Port Mazas, the Port de l'Arsenal at the mouth of the St Martin canal, the Port Henry IV., des Celestins, St Paul, des Ormes, de l'Hôtel de Ville (the two latter for fruit) and the Port St Nicolas (foreign vessels); on the left bank the Port de la Gare for petroleum, St Bernard for wines and the embarcation of sewage, and the ports of La Tournelle (old iron), Orsay (building material), the Invalides, Gros Caillou, the Cygnes, Grenelle and Javel (refuse). Besides the river ports, the port of Paris also includes the canals of St Martin and the portions of the canals of St Denis and the Ourcq within the walls. All three debouch in the busy and extensive basin of La Villette in the north-east of the city. The traffic of the port is chiefly in coal, building materials and stone, manure and fertilizers, agricultural produce and food-stuffs. Promenades and Parks.-In the heart of Paris are situated the gardens of the Tuileries (56 acres), designed by André Le Notre under Louis XIV. Though added to and altered afterwards they retain the main outlines of the original plan. They are laid out in parterres and bosquets, planted with chestrat trees, lindens and plane trees, and adorned with playing fourtains and basins, and numerous statues mostly antique in subject. From the terrace along the river-side a fine view is to be had over the Seine to the park and palace of the Trocadéro; and 1 This canal (3 m. long) leaving the Seine below Austerlitz bridge. passes by a tunnel under the Place de la Bastille and Boulevard Richard Lenoir, and rises by sluices to the La Villette basin, trea which the St Denis canal (4 m. long) descends to the Seine at St Denis. In this way boats going up or down the river can avod passing through Paris. The canal de l'Ourcq, which supples the two canals mentioned, contributes to the water-supply of Paris as well as to its transport facilities. These gardens are the property of the state, the other area mentioned being the property of the town. |
