to take Livonia, nominally as a fief of Poland, but really as an hereditary possession of the Saxon house. Military operations against Sweden's Baltic provinces were to be begun simultaneously by the Saxons and Russians. After thus forging the first link of the partition treaty, Patkul proceeded to Moscow, and, at a secret conference held at Preobrazhenskoye, easily persuaded Peter the Great to accede to the nefarious league (Nov. 11, 1699). Thoughout the earlier, unluckier days of the Great Northern War, Patkul was the mainstay of the confederates. At Vienna, in 1702, he picked up the Scottish general George Benedict Ogilvie, and enlisted him in Peter's service. The same year, recognizing the unprofitableness of serving such a master as Augustus, he exchanged the Saxon for the Russian service. Peter was glad enough to get a man so famous for his talents and energy, but Patkul speedily belied his reputation. His knowledge was too local and limited. On the 19th of August 1704 he succeeded, at last, in bringing about a treaty of alliance between Russia and the Polish republic to strengthen the hands of Augustus, but he failed to bring Prussia also into the antiSwedish league because of Frederick I.'s fear of Charles and jealousy of Peter. From Berlin Patkul went on to Dresden to conclude an agreement with the imperial commissioners for the transfer of the Russian contingent from the Saxon to the Austrian service. The Saxon ministers, after protesting against the new arrangement, arrested Patkul and shut him up in the fortress of Sonnenstein (Dec. 19, 1705), altogether disregarding the remonstrances of Peter against such a gross violation of international law. After the peace of Altranstädt (Sept. 24, 1707) he was delivered up to Charles, and at Kazimierz in Poland (Oct. 10, 1707) was broken alive on the wheel, Charles rejecting an appeal for mercy from his sister, the princess Ulrica, on the ground that Patkul, as a traitor, could not be pardoned for example's sake.

See O. Sjögren, Johan Reinhold Patkul (Swed.) (Stockholm, 1882); Anton Buchholtz, Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte J. R. Patkuls (Leip zig, 1893). (R. N. B.)

PATMORE, COVENTRY KERSEY DIGHTON (1823-1896), English poet and critic, the eldest son of Peter George Patmore, himself an author, was born at Woodford in Essex, on the 23rd of July 1823. He was privately educated, being his father's intimate and constant companion, and derived from him his early literary enthusiasm. It was his first ambition to become an artist, and he showed much promise, being awarded the silver palette of the Society of Arts in 1838. In the following year he was sent to school in France, where he studied for six months, and began to write poetry. On his return his father contemplated the publication of some of these youthful poems; but in the meanwhile Coventry had evinced a passion for science and the poetry was set aside. He soon, however, returned to literary interests, moved towards them by the sudden success of Tennyson; and in 1844 he published a small volume of Poems, which was not without individuality, but marred by inequalities of workmanship. It was widely criticized, both in praise and blame; and Patmore, distressed at its reception, bought up the remainder of the edition and caused it to be destroyed What chiefly wounded him was a cruel review in Blackwood, written in the worst style of unreasoning abuse; but the enthusiasm of private friends, together with their wiser criticism, did much to help him and to foster his talent. Indeed, the publication of this little volume bore immediate fruit in introducing its author to various men of letters, among whom was Dante Gabriel Rossetti, through whose offices Patmore became known to Holman Hunt, and was thus drawn into the eddies of the pre-Raphaelite movement, contributing his poem "The Seasons to the Germ. At this time Patmore's father became involved in financial embarrassments; and in 1846 Monckton Milnes secured for the son an assistant-librarianship in the British Museum, a post which he occupied industriously for nineteen years, devoting his spare time to poetry. In 1847 he married Emily, daughter of Dr Andrews of Camberwell. At the Museum he was austere and remote among his companions, but was nevertheless instrumental in 1852 in starting the Volunteer movement. He

wrote an important letter to The Times upon the subject, and stirred up much martial enthusiasm among his colleagues. In the next year he republished, in Tamerton Church Tower, the more successful pieces from the Poems of 1844, adding several new poems which showed distinct advance, both in conception and treatment; and in the following year (1854) appeared the first part of his best known poem, "The Angel in the House," which was continued in " The Espousals " (1856), “Faithful for Ever" (1860), and “The Victories of Love" (1862). In 1862 he lost his wife, after a long and lingering illness, and shortly afterwards joined the Roman Catholic Church. In 1865 he married again, his second wife being Miss Marianne Byles, second daughter of James Byles of Bowden Hall, Gloucester; and a year later purchased an estate in East Grinstead, the history of which may be read in How I managed my Estate, published in 1886. In 1877 appeared The Unknown Eros, which unquestionably contains his finest work in poetry, and in the following year Amelia, his own favourite among his poems, together with an interesting, though by no means undisputable, essay on Englisk Mctrical Law. This departure into criticism he continued further in 1879 with a volume of papers, entitled Principle in Art, and again in 1893 with Religio poctae. Meanwhile his second wife died in 1880, and in the next year he married Miss Harriet Robson. In later years he lived at Lymington, where he died on the 26th of November 1896.

A collected edition of his poems appeared in two volumes in 1886, with a characteristic preface which might serve as the author's epitaph. "I have written little," it runs; "but it is all my best; I have never spoken when I had nothing to say, nor spared time or labour to make my words true. I have respected posterity; and should there be a posterity which cares for letters, I dare to hope that it will respect me." The obvious sincerity which underlics this statement, combined with a certain lack of humour which peers through its naïveté, points to two of the principal characteristics of Patmore's earlier poetry; characteristics which came to be almost unconsciously merged and harmonized as his style and his intention drew together into unity. In the higher flights, to which he arose as his practice in the art grew perfected, he is always noble and often sublime. His best work is found in the volume of odes called The Unknown Eros, which is full not only of passages but of entire poems in which exalted thought is expressed in poetry of the richest and most dignified melody. The animating spirit of love, moreover, has here deepened and intensified into a crystalline harmony of earthly passion with the love that is divine and transcending; the outward manifestation is regarded as a symbol of a sentiment at once eternal and quintessential. Spirituality informs his inspiration; the poetry is of the finest elements, glowing and alive. The magnificent pice in praise of winter, the solemn and beautiful cadences of "* De parture," and the homely but elevated pathos of "The Toys" are in their various manners unsurpassed in English poetry for sublimity of thought and perfection of expression. Patmore is one of the few Victorian pocts of whom it may confidently be predicted that the memory of his greater achievements will outlive all consideration of occasional lapses from taste and dignity. He wrote, at his best, in the grand manner, melody and thought according with perfection of expression, and Es finest poems have that indefinable air of the inevitable which is after all the touchstone of the poetic quality. His son, Henry John Patmore (1860-1883), left a number of poems posthumously printed at Mr Daniell's Oxford Press, which show an unmistakable lyrical quality. (A. WAY

The standard life of Patmore is the Memoirs and Correspond Coventry Patmore (1905, "Literary Lives" series), and an essay ence (1901), edited by Basil Champneys. See also E. W. Gosse, by Mrs Meynell prefixed to the selection (1905) in the "Muses" Library."

PATMOS, an island in the east of the Aegean Sea, one of the group of the Sporades, about 28 m. S.S.W. of Samos, in 37° 20′ N. lat. and 26° 35′ E. long. Its greatest length from N. to S. is about 10 m., its greatest breadth 6 m., its circumference, owing to the winding nature of the coast, about 37 m. The island,

The DIVISION OF PATNA extended across both sides of the Ganges. It comprised the seven districts of Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga. Total area, 23,748 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 15,514,987. In 1908 the four last districts north of the Ganges were formed into the new division of Tirhut; and the name of Patna division was confined to the three first districts south of the Ganges.

See L. A. Waddell, Discovery of the Exact Site of Asoka's Classic Capital of Pataliputra (1892); Vincent Smith, Asoka ("Rulers of India" series, 1901); Patna District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907).

66

PATNA, one of the Orissa tributary states in Bengal, with an area of 2399 sq. m. It lies in the basin of the Mahanadi river, and is divided by a forest-clad hilly tract into a northern and a southern portion, both of which are undulating and well cultivated. Pop. (1901), 277,748, showing a decrease of 16% in the decade, mainly due to the effects of famine in 1900. Nearly the whole population consists of Oriyas. The capital is Bolangir: pop. (1901), 3706. The principal crop is rice. The maharajas of Patna were formerly heads of a group of states known as the athara garhjat or eighteen forts." They are Chauhban Rajputs, and claim to have been established in Patna for six centuries. Patna was the scene of a rebellion of the Khonds, followed by atrocities on the part of their rulers, in 1869, and, in consequence, came under British management in 1871. The maharaja Ramchandra Singh, installed in 1894, was insane and put an end to his own life in the following year, whereupon his uncle, Lal Dalganjan Singh, became chief, undertaking to administer with the assistance of a diwan or minister appointed by the British government. The powers of this official were extended in 1900 after a serious outbreak of dacoity. Till 1905 the state was included in the Central Provinces.

PATOIS, a French term strictly confined to the dialect of a district or locality in a country which has a common literary language, often used of the form of a common language as spoken by illiterate or uneducated persons, marked by vulgarisms in pronunciation, grammar, &c. The origin of the word is not certain. It has been taken to be a corruption of patrois, from Low Lat. partriensis, of or belonging to one's patria, or native country, fatherland.

PATON, JOHN BROWN (1830- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born on the 17th of December 1830. He was educated at London, Poole and Spring Hill College, Birmingham; he graduated B.A. at London University in 1849, and was Hebrew and New Testament prizeman in 1850 and gold medallist in philosophy in 1854. He received the honorary degree of doctor of divinity from Glasgow University in 1881. When the Nottingham Congregational Institute was founded in 1863 he became the first principal, a post which he held till 1898, when he was succeeded by James Alexander Mitchell (1849-1905), who from 1903 till his death was general secretary of the Congregational Union. Paton became vice-president of the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1907. He took an active part in the foundation and direction of a number of societies for religious and social work, notably the National Home Reading Union Society and English Land Colonization Society, and was a constant contributor to literary reviews. His publications include The Two-fold Alternative (3rd ed., 1900), The Inner Mission of the Church (new ed., 1900), and two volumes of collected essays. His son, John Lewis Paton (b. 1863), who headed the Cambridge classical tripos in 1886, became head master of Manchester grammar school in 1903. PATON, SIR JOSEPH NOEL (1821-1901), British painter, was born, on the 13th of December 1821, in Woolers Alley, Dunfermline, where his father, a fellow of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries, carried on the trade of a damask manufacturer. He showed strong artistic inclinations in early childhood, but had no regular art training, except a brief period of

went

a prize of £200 in the first Westminster Hall competition, in 1845, for his cartoon "The Spirit of Religion," and in the following year he exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy his " Quarrel of Oberon and Titania." A companion fairy picture, "The Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania to Westminster Hall in 1847, and for it and his picture of "Christ bearing the Cross" he was awarded a prize of £300 by the Fine Arts Commissioners. The two Oberon pictures are in the National Gallery of Scotland, where they have long been a centre of attraction. His first exhibited picture, Ruth Gleaning," appeared at the Royal Scottish Academy in 1844. He began to contribute to the Royal Academy of London in 1856. Throughout his career his preference was for allegorical, fairy and religious subjects. Among his most famous pictures are The Pursuit of Pleasure" (1855), "Mors Janua Vitae" (1866), "Oskold and the Ellé-maids (1874), and "In Die Malo" (1882). Sir Noel Paton also produced a certain amount of sculpture, more notable for design than for searching execution. He was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1847, and a full member in 1850; he was appointed Queen's Limner for Scotland in 1866, and received knighthood in 1867. In 1878 the University of Edinburgh conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. He was a poet of distinct merit, as his Poems by a Painter (1861) and Spindrift (1867) pleasantly exemplified. He was also well known as an antiquary, his hobby, indeed, being the collection of arms and armour. Sir Noel died in Edinburgh on the 26th of Decem ber 1901. His eldest son, Diarmid Noel Paton (b. 1850), became regius professor of physiology in Glasgow in 1906; and another son, Frederick Noel Paton (b. 1861), became in 1905 director of commercial intelligence to the government of India.

PATRAS (Gr., Patrai), the chief tortified seaport town on the west coast of Greece, and chief town of the province of Achaca and Elis, on a gulf of the same name, 70 m. W.N.W. of Corinth. There are two railway stations, one in the north-east on the line to Athens (via Corinth), the other on the line to Pyrgos. Pop (1889), 33,529; (1907), 37,401. It has been rebuilt since 1811 (the War of Independence), and is the seat of a Greek archbishop and an appeal court. It is the chief port of Greece, from which the great bulk of its currants are despatched. The port, formed by a mole and a breakwater, begun in 1880, offers a fair harbour for vessels drawing up to 22 ft. The exports consist of currants, sultanas, valonca, tobacco, olive oil, olives in brine, figs, citrons, wine, brandy, cocoons, and lamb, goat, and kid skins. The imports consist chiefly of colonial produce, manufactured goods and sulphate of copper. The two most interesting buildings are the castle, a medieval structure on the site of the ancient acropolis, and the cathedral of St Andrew, which is highly popular as the reputed burial-place of the saint. The foundation of Patras goes back to prehistoric times, the legendary account being that Eumelus, having been taught by Triptolemus how to grow grain in the rich soil of the Glauces valley, established three townships, Aroe (i.c. ploughland), Antheia (the flowery), and Mesatis (the middle settlement), which were united by the common worship of Artemis Triclara at her shrine on the river Meilichus. The Achaeans having strengthened and enlarged Aroe, called it Patrae, as the exclusive residence of the ruling families, and it was recognized as one of the twelve Achaean cities. In 419 B.C. the town was, by the advice of Alcibiades, connected with its harbour by long walk in imitation of those at Athens. The whole armed force was destroyed by Metellus after the defeat of the Achaeans t Scarpheia, and many of the remaining inhabitants forsook the city; but after the battle of Actium Augustus restored the ancient name Aroe, introduced a military colony of veterans from the 10th and 12th legions (not, as is usually said, the 22nd), and bestowed the rights of coloni on the inhabitants of Rhypae and Dyme, and all the Locri Ozolae except those of Amphissa Colonia Augusta Aroe Patrensis became one of the most populous of all the towns of Greece; its colonial coinage extends

of the family and the clan by the unprivileged class would be perfectly natural.

The absurdity of excluding the plebeians from all but a merely theoretical citizenship, based on the negative fact of freedom, seems to have become apparent before the close of the monarchical period. The aim of the reforms associated with the name of Servius Tullius appears to have been the imposition of the duties of citizenship upon the plebeians. Incidentally this involved an extension of plebeian privilege in two directions. First, it was necessary to unify the plebeian order by putting the legal status of the clients on a level with that of the unattached plebeians; and again enrolment in the army involved registration in the tribes and centuries; and as the army soon developed into a legislative assembly meeting in centuries (comitia centuriata), the whole citizen body, including plebeians, now acquired a share of political power, which had hitherto belonged solely to the patricians. At the close of the monarchy, the plebeian possessed the private rights of citizenship in entirety, except for his inability to contract a legal marriage with a patrician, and one of the public rights, that of giving his vote in the assembly. But in the matter of liability to the duties of citizenship, military service and taxation, he was entirely on a level with the patrician. This position was probably tolerable during the monarchy, when the king served to hold the power of the patrician families in check. But when these families had expelled the Tarquins, and formed themselves into an exclusive aristocracy of privilege, the inconsistency between partial privilege and full burdens came to be strongly felt by the plebeians.

The result was the long struggle for entire political equality of the two orders which occupies the first few centuries of the republic (see ROME: History, § II. "The Republic "). The struggle was inaugurated by the plebeians, who in 494 B.C. formed themselves into an exclusive order with annually elected officers (tribuni plebis) and an assembly of their own, and by means of this machinery forced themselves by degrees into all the magistracies, and obtained the coveted right of intermarriage with the patricians. Admission to the higher magistracies carried with it admission to the senate, and by the close of the struggle (about 300 B.C.) the political privilege of the two orders was equalized, with the exception of certain disabilities which, originally devised to break the political monopoly of the order, continued to be attached to the patricians after the victory of the plebs. They were excluded from the tribunate and the council of the plebs, which had become important instruments of government, and were only eligible for one place in the consulship and censorship, while both were open to plebeians. It is possible, though far from certain (see SENATE), that the powers of the interregnum and the senatorial confirmation (patrum auctoritas) necessary to give validity to decisions of the people, remained the exclusive privileges of the patrician members of the senate. But while the patrician disabilities were of a kind that had gained in importance with the lapse of centuries, these privileges, even if still retained, had become merely formal in the second half of the republican period. Since the plebeian element in the state had an immense numerical preponderance over the patrician these disabilities were not widely spread, and seem generally to have been cheerfully borne as the price of belonging to the families still recognized as the oldest and noblest in Rome. But the adoption of P. Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family in 59 B.C. with a view to election to the tribunate shows that a rejection of patrician rights (transitio ad plebem) was not difficult to effect by any patrician who preferred actual power to the dignity of ancient descent. It was not so easy to recruit the ranks of the patricians. The traditions of early Rome indeed represent the patricians as receiving the Claudii by a collective act into their body; but the first authenticated instance of the admission of new members to the patriciate is that of the lex Cassia, which authorized Caesar as dictator to create fresh patricians. The same procedure 1Cf. the privileges of the Athenians under the Solonian system see SOLON; ECCLESIA; ARCHON).

| was followed by Augustus. Later on, the right of creating patricians came to be regarded as inherent in the principate, and was exercised by Claudius and Vespasian without any legal enactment, apparently in their capacity as censor (Tac. A¤¤. xi. 25; Vita M. Antonini, i.). Patrician rank seems to have been regarded as a necessary attribute of the princeps; and in two cases we are told that it was conferred upon a plebeian princeps by the senate (Vita Juliani, 3; Macrini, 7). A comparison of this procedure with the original conception of the patriciate as revealed by the derivation of the word, is significant of the history of the conception of nobility at Rome, and illustrative of the tenacity with which the Romans clung to the name and form of an institution which had long lost its significance. After the political equalization of the two orders, noble birth was no longer recognized as constituting a claim to political privilege. Instead of the old hereditary nobility, consisting of the members of the patrician clans, there arose a nobility of office, consisting of all those families, whether patrician or plebeian, which had held curule office. It was now the tenure of office that conferred distinction. In the early days of Rome, office was only open to the member of a patrician gens. In the principate, patrician rank, a sort of abstract conception based upon the earlier state of affairs, was held to be a dignity suitable to be conferred on an individual holder of office. But the confcrment of the rank upon an individual as distinct from a whole family (gens) is enough to show how widely the modern conception of patrician rank differed from the ancient. The explanation of this is that the plebeians had long been organized, like the patricians, in gentes, and nothing remained distinctive of the old nobility except a vague sense of dignity and worth. (A.M.CL.)

II. Under Constantine an entirely new meaning was given to the word Patrician. It was used as a personal title of honour conferred for distinguished services. It was a title merely of rank, not of office; its holder ranked next after the emperor and the consul. It naturally happened, however, that the title was generally bestowed upon officials, especially on the chief provincial governors, and even among barbarian chieftains whose friendship was valuable enough to call forth the imperial benediction. Among the former it appears to have become a sort of ex officio title of the Byzantine vicegerents of Italy, the exarchs of Ravenna; among the barbarian chiefs who were thus dignified were Odoacer, Theodoric, Sigismund of Burgundy, Clovis, and even in later days princes of Bulgaria, the Saracens, and the West Saxons. The word thus acquired an official connotation. The dignity was not hereditary and belonged only to individuals; thus a patrician family was merely one whose head enjoyed the rank of patricius. Gradually the root sense of "father" came to the front again, and the patricias was regarded as the "father of the emperor " (Ammian Marc. xxix. 2). With the word were associated such further titles as eminentia, magnitudo, magnificentla. Those patricians who were purely honorary were called honorarii or codicillarii; those who were still in harness were praesentales. They were all distinguished by a special dress or uniform and in public always drove in a carriage. The emperor Zeno enacted that no one could become patricius who had not been praefectus militum, consul or magister militum, but less careful emperors gave the title to their favourites, however young and undistinguished. The writ in which the title was conferred was called a diploma.

A further change in the meaning of the name is marked by its conferment on Pippin the Frank by Pope Stephen. The idea of this extension originated no doubt in the fact that the Italian patricius of the 6th and 7th centuries had come to be regarded as the defensor, protector, patronus of the Church. At all events, the conferring of the title by a pope was entirely unprecedented; previously its validity had depended on the emperor solely. As a matter of fact it is clear that the patriciate of Pippin was a new office, especially as the title is henceforward generally patricius Romanorum, not patricius alone. It was 2 The name is used of Charles Martel, but it was not apparently formally conferred upon him.